
Pan -Dualism 



Science 



AND 



Philosophy. 







The Classification of Science— Recent Progress in 

Science —The Dualistic Philosophy —Harmony 

of Science and Religion, Etc. 



By REV. SAMUEL FLEMING, LL D., PH. D„ 

Vice-Prest. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc, Mem. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Etc. 



■v 



CHICAGO: 



Skeen & Stuart, Stationers & Printers, 
1880. 



(7k 



'o 




The themes announced on the title page, and others, were subjects of lectures and 
discourses hitherto delivered before the American Authropological Association; and on 
other occasions, at Chicago, 111. ; Logansport and Crown Point, Ind. ; Burr Oak, Sturges, 
and elsewhere in Mich. It is intended to issue them in parts as may be convenient. 

Buek Oak, Mich., 1880. 



A CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCE, 

BASED UPON THE ORDER OF NATURE FROM THE LOWER TO THE HIGHER, AND THE METHOD OF PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY FROM GENERALS TO SPECIALS, 

. AND PHENOMENA TO RELATIONS. LAWS AND APPLICATIONS.* 



By REV. S. FLEMING, LL. D., PH.D. 



Laws of Reciprocity. International Law 

3. The Science of Revenues 

2. The Science of Civil Laws 

1. The Science of Civil Politics, (a) Monarchism. (b) Oligarcliism. (c) Republic 

The Science of the Constitution and Laws of the State 

The Constitution of the Family. 1. Marriage. 2. Heredity. 3. Government. ] 
_ The Human Race and the Races. Origin 
E. THE SCIENCE OF THE CONSTITUTION AND LAWS OF HUMAN SOCIETY 



II. 



Political Ethics. 
Political Lconoinv 



nguage and the Languages ....'....'.'.'..'.'.'.'.'. Philology. 

1-111 unci Vanities Of Race Bllinnli.™ 



III. 



2. The Laws of Rectitude, (a) Personal, SeltfXove. (b) Social, Benevolence, (c) Divine, Piety. 

j Relations to other beings 

1. The Basis of Obligation. ] The moral constitution. Capacities for determining moral relations and qualii 

The Science of the Moral Functions and or Obligation. The Conscience ^ L . 

1 Canons of Literary Taste Harmony of linguistic i 



.Ethics. Theo-dcntoloey 



.Ethology or DEONTOLOGY. 



i Science of the Beautiful. 



The Laws and Methods of Reasoning. 



of Artistic Taste: Harmony of formal proportior 
uiii laritjes and Correspondences. Analogical... 

From universale to particulars. Deductive 

From particulars tn universals. Inductive 

Relations of premises and validity of inferences . 

Conception, Recollection, Association, Elaboration 

Intuition. Primordial ideas of Being: Space, Time, Number. Resemblance 

Capacities for rational and complete cognition, and for determining Hie laws of relations 

~ lience of the Rational Functions, conditio >:H mediately upon the psychical constitution. 

3. The Mental Functions, (a) Perceptive, Intellect, (hi Sensitive, s,mi//eit,,. (c> V.ilitive, Will 

2. The Psychical Functions conditioning simple Mental Acts. Receptive, Retentive, Presentative 

(b) The Psychical Basis of (1) Continuity and Identity. (2) Consciousness, Sensation, Memory. Psychical Scusoriu 
1. The Psychical Constitution, (a) The uervo-ethereal connecticn of the physical and psychical systems the basis of v 

I The Science of the .Mental Functions conditioned immediately upon the Psychical Constitution 

D. PSYCHO-MENTAL SCIENCE. The science of the human psychical nature and functions of the rational Mind 



and tones. The Fine Arts. 



The t 



Iteason ■ 



RATIONAL PSYCH. 
Mental Psychology. 



Therapeutics. 



re" 



f. 



(b) Abnormal Conditions of the Physical System. (1) Physicil disease. (2) Psychical derangement [Mental Physiology] 

(a) constitution and Normal state of the Physical System, j K U re s .':::::::::::::. .':::::.:::::::::; '::: :::::: ::::::::: :::;::::::;::;:;::::::.::;:.::::::;:: ;.:::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::: IKomyf 

2. Beines constituted for erect position, for speech, and douiinior over the lower orders of beings, with capacity for mechanism. Limited to the human order of mammals 

(J; The Science of animal forms existing in petrified states .' [Paleontology] 

(c) Sciences pertaining to Sub-kingdoms: Concliology, Ichtby>logy, Ophiology, Entomology, Ornithology, Mammalogy 

(b) General Types: (I) Radiates; (2) Molluscs; (3) Articulates: (4) Vertebrates 

(Sentient nature, Sensation. Instinct 
Physical functions 
Physical structure. [Irrational 

1. Beings having a muscular and nervous structure, and capacilhs for sensation, affection and voluntary motion 

The Science of beings possessing conscious life, and which derive lourishment from organic matter 

4. The Science of vegetal forms existing in petrified states [Paleontology] 

3. Applied Botany: Culinary. .Medical, Esthetic 

2. Special Sciences pertaintng to Agr' 
1. Constitution 



Anatomy, 

ANTHltOPOSOPHY. 
Animal Fossilogy. 



c'oiup. Psychology. 
I 'unip. I'liysiology 
('oiii]i. Anatomy. 

Zoo-Co c-a 

Veg. Fossilogy. 



The Science- of beii 



allure, Horticulture 
Functions. 

( Structure 

gs possessing unconscious life, and which derive nourishment from ; 





Tl 



C, PHYSICO-VITAL SCIENCE. The Science of beings constituted of organic Matter and ] 



PI i >' to n oiny 

i matter Botany t 



Bot. Physiology. 
Morphology. ' 
Phytology. 
Biology. 



4. Applied Chemistry, j ^{j™ S^SSSTl^ .. . . . . . . .\ t 

3. Laws of Chemical changes caused by the action of Electi icily ■ 

2. Laws and methods of separating the constituents of compounds 

1. Laws and methods of uniting the constituents of compounds. 1 
77/-' science of compound substances and the Imcs and nadhods of miiU'il 

3. Laws of the Persistence of Force. The Correlation and Confer 

(d) Laws of the electric force applied to produce mechanical (fleets 

(c) Laws of mechanical heat, causing expansion, evaporation, etc. 

(b) Heterogeneous aggregations causing union of surfaces. Cementing, etc. 

(a) Homogeneous integrations and condensations conserving nechanic arts. Strength of material 

2. Laws of force and motion operating among atoms and moleculis of 



leterogeneous Integrations. 
and separating their eonstitut 
ration of the physical forces 



Molec. Attr. 



Changed relations of force and motion by the 
(c) Laws of forces acting on bodies which are nol 



of machines, causing increase or diminution of motion. Mech. Powers 

C Gases 

equilibrium, causing motion of Vapor, Produa.cn ^^tf^.£ ;;;;; 

[ Solids and fluids 

(Gases. Aerial pressure 

(b) Laws of forces acting on bodies which are in equilibrium, - Liquids. Water pressure 

( Solids and fluids. Weight, etc. Gravity 

(a) The science of motion considered apart from its causes 

Laws of force and motion manifested among masses 

1 science of matter and nwtooi in their relations to Meehinical eff'eds 

f Electric phys. phenomena. Electricity. 



.Aerology 
climatic:. | 
Iydrology 



4. The science of the phenomena caused by insensible oscillie motion of aerial or ethereal medi; 



I Actinic radiations. Actin 

-' Luminiferous radiations. 

Thermogenetic radiations 



3. The science of the forms and phenomena of matter as exhibited in the Atmosphere 

(d) Divisions and phenomena of solids and fluids as exhibited upon the earth's surface 

(c) Action going on within the earth's crust (as earthquakes and volcanoes) causing changes of earl 

(b) Petrifactions of organic substances as related to stratification 

(a) Forms of inorganic matter constituting the stratified and itnstiatified portions of the earth's crui 

2. The science of the history and constitution of the earth's crust 

(d) Phenomena exhibited in the forms of Auroras and Zodiac il lights. Hypothetical 

(c)The constitution and laws or the Solar system. Suu, Planets, Planetoids, Satellites. Comets, Me 
(b)The science "!' the Slellai masses. Sun systems; Group svsicms; Cluster systems; Nebular systi 
(a) The Genesis of the Stellar universe. Attractive and liadi ttc forces, producing nebulous motion 

1. The science of the celestial masses constituting the Stellar Universe 

I. The forms, phenomena and laws of matter and force as exhibited in their general relations 

B. PHYSICO-DYNAMIC SCIENCE. The science of Matter and Force 



.Actinographyor 

Photology 

[Therinoticsl 

[Phonology] 



Agri. Chem. 
Mich, t'tccin. 
Electro-Chem. 
Analyt. Chem. 
Synth. Chem. 
CIIEMICS. 



MOLECULAR MECH. 

Pneumatics. 

Ilvdi'o-Dynam. 

DYNAMICS. 

Areostatics. 

Hydrostatics. 

STATICS. 

Cinematics. 

MOLAR MECH. 

MECHANICS. 

Meteorology. 

Photography. 

Piiys. Optics. 

Phys. Acoustics. 

Anemology. 

Phys. Geography. 

Seismology. 

•Paleontology. 

Mineralogy. 

GEOLOGY. 



. Astrogony. Geogony 



a„ i!, J ii.ii,»n,.,i,. * 2 - Special Sciences: Surveying, Geodesy, Navigation, Astronomy 

Applied Mathematics. - ( j General Mensuration: Line!, surfaces, solids, capacities, time, circular, motion, etc. 
3. Relations of the sections of a cone, and methods of determination 

2. Relations of lines and their included angles, plane and spherical, and methods of determination 

1. Relations of magnitude, plaue and spherical, and methods ot determining their content 

I. Properties, relations and laws of extentional or (jnuntilatirc Vontfnt. The science of Magnitude 

3. Relations ot" variable quantities and their differentials, and n'cthods of determining the functions of their arcs. 

2. When any of the elements are represented by symbols of unknown values 

1. Relations of quantities and methods of determination, when all the elements of an expression are known 

1. Properties, relations and laws of A americal Content. The science: of Number 

THE SCIENCE OF QUANTITY 



ASTRONOMY. 
PHYSICS. 
Dynainology. 



Conic Sections. 
Trigonometry. 
Geometry. 



Calculus. 
Algebra. 
Arithmetic. 

Mathematics. 



i Bottom Upwards. 



fcK-TWcCorH/ 



I. 

THE CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCE. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Tire term science has been variously defined. It is from 
the Latin scientia (froms<%'<9, to know, ) which is defined as 
"a knowing, or being skilled in any thing; generally, 
knowledge, science." The original sense of the term sci- 
entia involves the twofold conception, of the thing, or fact 
itself, which is the subject of knowledge, and the knowing 
the fact. The former is the objective signification, the 
latter the subjective. In defining the term, therefore, 
diverse forms of expression have been used, and different 
senses conveyed. In the edition of Webster's Unabridged 
Dictionary, published in 1878, modified definitions are 
given as follows: " Knowledge; the comprehension of 
truth or fact; truth ascertained; that which is known; 
hence, specifically, knowledge duly arranged, and referred 
to general truths on which it is founded." By some, the 
definition given is ' c systematic knowledge " ; by others, 
" what is comprehended by the mind " ; another definition 
is in the following language: "Science is the name for 
such portions of human knowledge as have been more or 
less generalized, systematized and verified." Herbert 
Spencer gives the following, corresponding with the general 
divisions of his " Classification of the Sciences": 1. That 
which treats of the forms in which phenomena are known 
to us ; 2. That which treats of the phenomena themselves. 
Prof. Tice, after stating that ' ' there is a broad distinction 
between knowledge and science," gives this distinction in 



4 Science and Philosophy. 

the following terms : " Knowledge is a clear and certain 
perception of that which exists, or of truth or of fact. 
Science is a body of general principles : particular truths, 
and facts, arranged in systematic order." 

The terms science and knowledge have sometimes been 
used as synonymous ; frequently without due discrimina- 
tion. It is evident that the facts of science, if not science 
itself, exist prior to, or irrespective of the mind which ac- 
quires the knowledge of them, if we except the science of 
the mind itself. Existence is one thing, the knowledge of 
such existence is radically another thing. Hence the pro- 
priety, and often great importance of recognizing this dis- 
tinction, and of discriminating in the use of the terms. 
Scientific terms should be used with definiteness of mean- 
ing, for clearness and conciseness of written or oral instruc- 
tion. If science and knowledge are synonymous terms, if 
the definition "science is knowledge" is the same with 
the terms transposed, thus "knowledge is science", every 
child and uneducated person who knows that "fire burns", 
is a scientist, without, it may be, knowing what fire is, or 
its causes. Then science would signify no more than 
knowledge. But all fundamentally distinctive ideas are 
appropriately expressed by different terms. And it is desir- 
able that the demands of language be recognized, and this 
practical rule for the use of discriminating words be ob- 
served. Synonymous words are properly those which are 
derived from different languages, and are used for euphony, 
or variety. 

Further, there is a legitimate distinction between com- 
mon, obvious, or non-scientific knowledge, and scientific 
knowledge. And this is not a distinction in respect to cer- 
tainty ; for common knowledge is often as certain as scien- 
tific knowledge, as in reference to the fall of a body to the 
earth : while much that is called scientific knowledge is far 
from being exact in its complete sense, as in respect to the 
nature of the ultimate cosmic forces, the aurora borealis, 
and other phenomena. Nor is it a difference simply in 
degree of knowledge, but a difference also in respect to 



Classification of Science. 5 

kind and quality. Thus two persons may observe an eclipse 
of the sun or moon ; one may know only that one body in- 
tercepts the light of another body ; the other person may 
know the causes, the sizes, distances, orbits, periodic times, 
laws of motion, and many other elements whose knowledge 
is essential to the determination of the phenomenon. The 
attainments respectively differ, — the former having only 
the knowledge of a single fact, the latter the knowledge of 
the whole system of facts, principles and laws pertaining to 
the phenomenon; the former possessing ordinary knowledge, 
the latter scientific knowledge. The distinction is therefore 
fundamental, and should be recognized as really as other 
differing facts. 

These may be regarded as extreme cases, and it may be 
said that the point of transition, or the boundary line be- 
tween the non-scientific and the scientific may not be clearly 
determined. Be it so ; the claims of science require exact- . 
ness of knowledge to the extent to which the exactness may 
be obtained by observation or reasoning, and to which the 
facts themselves fix the standard. And though perfection 
is the standard and aim, the knowledge of a sufficient num- 
ber of related facts constituting a systematic knowledge, or 
knowledge sufficiently "generalized, systematized, and 
verified", for the comprehension of the relations and laws 
pertaining to such facts, may be received as evidence of 
scientific attainment, and capacity for intelligent progress. 
A man may possess a practical knowledge of carpentry, by 
which he may perform work, when a frame is "laid out", 
without the scientific knowledge of the principles, rules or 
methods by which such work is planned ; much less with- 
out the higher mathematical and mechanical knowledge of 
architecture. 

Another point of distinction claims attention. The term 
science is used in both a general, and a special or restricted 
sense. Either the whole body or aggregate of facts through- 
out the whole range of phenomena, relations, laws and 
applications, is referred to comprehensively, as "The 
classification of all science" ; or, a branch or sub-science 



6 Science and Philosophy. 

is referred to specially, as "The Science of Chemistry." 
Frequently a special science is recognized by the form of 
statement implying that to which reference is made, the 
term science being used by metonomy for a science, or a 
particular branch of general science, thus: " Science 
[chemistry] teaches that all masses of matter are made up 
of elements which had previously been isolated or sepa- 
rate." Or this: "Science [the science of the conserva- 
tion of the forces] teaches that a certain quantity of heat 
may be changed into a definite quantity of mechanical 
work ; this quantity of work can also be re-transformed 
into the same quantity of heat as that from which it orig- 
inated." It may be added that the term science is some- 
times used in an indefinite sense, or without precision, as 
" a man of science ", — one who possesses a wide range of 
knowledge. 

These distinctions between knowledge and science, be- 
tween ndn-scientific and scientific knowledge, and between 
the special and general significations of the term science, 
being recognized, it remains only to give such forms of 
definition as shall meet the requirements of the case. The 
following are believed to be sufficiently precise : 

1. Science (special or particular) is a system of phenom- 
ena, principles, relations and laws pertaining to a special 
subject. 

2. Science (general or universal) is the aggregate of 
special sciences. 

SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION. 

Many attempts have been made to classify the various sci- 
ences. The conception that they are naturally related, inti- 
mately, or more remotely, having general or special connec- 
tions, has led to such arrangement of these in departments 
and groups as has accorded with the fundamental principles 
upon which they have been conceived to be allied. And 
since science consists chiefly of the facts, phenomena, laws 
and principles, material or immaterial, which pertain to 
being, or the forms in which being is known, it is evident 
that schemes of classification will be adopted according to 



Classification of Science. 7 

the systems of philosophy maintained by those who con- 
struct them. All classification will hence be observed to 
conform in general principles of structure to one or another 
of the three following systems of philosophy with respect 
to existence, or entities, viz. : Spiritualism, Materialism, or 
Dualism. The first, which includes Idealism, rejects the 
doctrine of material essence, mind only being held to be 
fundamental and real, — the outer world only phantasmic 
or apparent, or as held by some, matter being a mode or 
manifestation of mind. The second rejects the doctrine of 
a spiritual entity, — the mind or spirit being held to be a phe- 
nomenon of matter ; force, life and mind being but proper- 
ties, or special manifestations of matter. Both the above 
systems are monistic, one substance, or essence, only held 
to exist. The third maintains the real existence of both 
matter and spirit in essential connection, yet distinct and 
unlike, not only in essence, but in their laws of development 
and modes of action, — two related yet diverse processes. 
This may be termed Dualistic Realism, in contradistinc- 
tion to the Monistic Realism predicated of each of the two 
former systems above-mentioned. 

But so diverse and even contradictory, in important re- 
spects, are many of these schemes of classification, that 
the question may be asked with pertinence, is any unex- 
ceptionable classification possible ? Indeed, it has been 
admitted by men of high scientific standing that the most 
perfect classification will contain some incongruities and 
minor imperfections ; and that a system substantially cor- 
rect may, notwithstanding, contain something which is 
artificial, or merely theoretic. An apparent incongruity 
may be explained by the fact that several of the sub- 
sciences bear relations to different and widely separated 
sciences as to their fundamental characteristics, as will be 
observed in the scheme of the writer of this article. 

A few diverse schemes are here given to illustrate the 
fact that one's philosophy will determine his principles of 
classification. 

The fundamental principle of Oken, a German philos- 



8 Science and Philosophy. 

opher, is, that "Mathematics is the universal science, and 
holding the transcendental idea that mathematics is zero, 
equal to nothing (0), has constructed his scheme to embrace 
three general classes, viz. : 1. Mathesis, the doctrine of the 
whole; 2. Ontology, erroneously defined to be u the doc- 
trine of the phenomena of matter", or what seems to be, 
consistently enough with his doctrine of Idealism ; 3. £iol- 
ogy, all orders of life and mind. Included in class first 
he has two groups : 1st. Pneumatogeny, the doctrine of 
immaterial totalities ; subjects arranged in the following 
order : Primary Art, Prim. Consciousness, God, Prim. 
Rest, Time, Polarity, Motion, Man, Space, Point, Line, 
Surface, Globe, Rotation. Group 2d, under the term 
Hylogeny, defin ed to be " the doctrine of material totalities, ' ' 
includes the following : Gravity, Matter, Ether, Heavenly 
bodies, Light, Heat, and Fire. Included in Ontology, he 
has Rest, Centre, Motion, Line, Planets, Form, Planetary 
Systems, Comets, Condensation, Simple Matter, Elements. 
Air, Water, Earth, Mineralogy, Geogony, etc. Other 
divisions of this anomalous system are here omitted. The 
author has conceived of a phenomenal process which is 
given under the term Ontology, but which, so far as it 
represents the facts, pertains to cosmogony. It will be 
observed, moreover, that the place of geogony, to repre- 
sent a consecutive order, is at point where the genesis of 
the earth is given, if it can be found. But this system is 
based upon the fundamental principle of mathematics, 
which, according to the author, is zero = ; for, as it is 
assumed, "Mathematics is the universal science of forms, 
without substance." Such a system of nothings consist- 
ing of terms, names and propositions, without realities, 
may well be termed Idealistic Nihilism ! 

The philosophy of Hegel (German) is founded upon the 
theory that the essence of the universe is a process of 
thought from the abstract to the concrete. His classifica- 
tion is based upon Logic, as its fundamental principle, 
instead of Mathematics, which is Oken's, with which it 
otherwise well corresponds. A quotation from President 



Classification of Science. 9 

Hopkins, that " Classification is a law of forces, not a law of 
logic", may here be given as a sufficient answer to Hegel's 
principle. 

The method of M. Compte (French), and author of "The 
Positive Philosophy", gives what he calls "The one 
rational order", as follows: Mathematics (including me- 
chanics), celestial and terrestrial physics, chemistry, phys- 
iology and social physics. In its general outlines, it is a 
near approach to the proper order ; but, in its special appli- 
cation and interpretation, it is a statement of the philos- 
ophy contained in his celebrated work just referred to. In 
that he gives his theory in the following statements : "Our 
study of nature is restricted to the analysis of phenomena, 
in order to discover their laws, and can have nothing to do 
with their nature, or cause, or the mode of their produc- 
tion." The question is suggested, What is the province of 
philosophy, if not to explain such nature, cause, and mode 
of production? He opposes "all inquisition into the 
essence of things " ; rejects all hypotheses of "electric 
liuids and luminous ^ethers which are to account for the 
phenomena of heat, light, electricity and magnetism." He 
denies that there can be any such thing as internal obser- 
vation of the mind, or any knowledge of the causes of 
phenomena. What does he mean by mind ? and how does 
he know that there are other minds than his own, or what 
is so called, to study his Positive Philosophy ! He defines 
law to be "a constant relation of succession or similitude", 
and ignores all causes operating in matter, and of course 
there are no such entities as force, life or mind, human or 
divine. 

In his subdivisions and groups, many incongruities are 
found, the statement of which must here be omitted. The 
subject matter of concrete mathematics, which is composed 
of plane geometry and rational mechanics, he has stated to 
consist of space, time, motion, and force, whose nature, in- 
deed, may not be inquired into. He undertakes to classify 
the science in the order of historic development, or pro- 
gress, which cannot be substantiated. Thus, historically, 



10 Science and Philosophy. 

geometry had advanced to a considerable degree of perfec- 
tion before the invention of algebra; and chemistry had 
made considerable progress before geology and mineralogy 
had become strictly sciences ; while many of the facts of 
zoology had been arranged in systematic order more than 
two thousand years before the laws or methods of the 
stratification of the rocks, including immeasurable periods 
of time, had come to be accepted, as against the almost 
universally received doctrine of a miraculous creation of 
"the heavens and the earth ", in six literal days about six 
thousand years ago. 

The method of Herbert Spencer, while ostensibly based 
upon the distinction between the abstract and the concrete 
sciences, really procedes in development upon the hypothe- 
sis of Materialistic Evolution. He classifies the sciences 
under three tables : 1. Abstract /Science, which includes 
mathematics and logic. 2. Abstract- Concrete Science, 
which includes mechanics, meteorology, chemistry, heat, 
light, electricity and magnetism. 3. Concrete Science, 
which includes astronomy, astrology and geogony. Evolved 
from the latter are those subjects which are contained in 
the two following branches : 1. Mineralogy, meteorology, 
and geology ; 2. Biology, out of which evolves morph- 
ology, physiology, psychology, and sociology. It will be 
seen that the distinction between the abstract and the con- 
crete sciences has involved inconsistencies and confusion. 
While mathematics is appropriately placed first in the order, 
inasmuch as its principles apply to the measure of content, 
which belongs to all things susceptible of measurement, 
especially to the physical, mechanical and chemical depart- 
ments of science ; and also, as numerical mathematics 
applies to organic being, social statistics, etc., logic per- 
tains to the rational nature and cannot with propriety be 
placed below both inorganic and organic nature without 
involving the necessity of separating subjects which are 
necessarily affiliated, as empirical psychology and rational 
psychology are. Further, both mathematics and logic are 
both abstract and concrete, being founded in principles 



Classification of Science. 11 

which are applied practically both to forms and things. 
The term abstract, which means to draw from, or separate, 
or that which is considered apart from its related subjects, 
is more appropriately applied to some other sciences than 
those assumed ; thus Kinematics is an abstract science, 
inasmuch as it is "motion considered apart from its 
causes." 

In the second table, the sciences of the laws relative to 
bodies are given before the recognition of such bodies, as 
if anticipating them ; yet these are given under a twofold 
term, " abstract-concrete ", instead of being given as ab- 
stract. Thus, in giving the mechanical laws of solids and 
fluids before the supposed existence of these, is presump- 
tion, and we may well ask, how can there be laws of enti- 
ties which as yet do not exist ? for it should be observed, 
these material entities are expressed in the third table, and 
as being evolved from terrestrial elements, and included 
under the term geology. The scheme betrays the design • 
of the classification. It seems evidently devised to exhibit, 
under the term " concrete ", the evolution from matter and 
motion, of all the "totalities" included in this branch. 
According to this, matter and motion, in their redistribu- 
tion, evolve the phenomena of force, life, and mind, while 
these entities, held as real by a true dualism, are regarded 
by Mr. Spencer as having no substantive existence, but 
only modes of motion manifested by matter, the only real 
existence, according to his philosophy. The author of this 
scheme proceeds upon the postulate that "The second and 
third groups supply the subject matter to the first, and the 
third supplies the subject matter to the second." Why 
not, then, begin with the subject matter, not simply includ- 
ing material phenomena, but the inherent force, and the 
laws of manifesting phenomena? He abhors a "serial" 
order, upon whatever scheme of philosophy, and combats 
M. Compte on this ground, yet has conveniently adopted 
it for his main purpose, as betrayed in his third table. 

An extended criticism of his system of philosophy, and 
his classification of the sciences, is not intended in this 



12 Science and Philosophy. 

paper. Such has been given by M. Lettre, French ; Prof. 
Bain, English ; and others. 

Only one other scheme of classification by other persons 
than the writer of this, will here be given ; it is that of 
Prof. Laurens P. Hickok, D. D., LL. D., American, and 
author of several profound philosophical works. He gives 
what he designates a "Rational Method of the Classifica- 
tion of all Science." His method includes two general 
branches or divisions : 1. Empirical or Inductive Science ; 
2. Rational or Transcendental Science. These fundamen- 
tal divisions are clearly defined. The first limits to facts 
or phenomena ; the second to laws and principles. The 
first embraces "what is given in experience", using the 
terms empirical and inductive to include observation and 
experiment. It is divided into two parts: 1. Qualities 
given in Perception ; 2. Things given in Reflection ; the 
former grouping external phenomena, as optics, acoustics, 
etc., the latter grouping things in space and time, includ- 
ing mensuration, substance, cause, counter-cause, chemis- 
try, magnetism, mechanism. The second or rational branch 
is divided into, 1. Intuitive (all mathematics) ; 2. Discur- 
sive (all philosophy). "Mathematics deals only in forms ; 
philosophy deals only in existences." Discursive science 
is divided into two parts. 1. Ontology, which includes 
cosmology, psychology, and theology. 2. Deontology, 
defined to be the rule of speculation, includes the canons of 
taste, (esthetics), politics, ethics, and religion. Cosmology 
is treated as including not only material nature, but physi- 
ology, now classified under biology. According to this 
scheme, therefore, man's physical nature belongs to cos- 
mology, the term anthropolgy not being given as it is com- 
mon with systems of philosophy. 

The subdivisions of Dr. Hickok do not appear to be sys- 
tematically arranged. His special field of thought does 
not embrace the sciences pertaining to inorganic matter, 
nor indeed to biology, but lies in the profound depths of 
transcendental philosophy held to be consistent with chris- 
tian theism. 



Classification of Science. 13 

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 

Science may be properly classified with respect to either 
the order and facts of nature, or the laws of thought and 
methods of obtaining the knowledge of facts. In respect 
to the first basis, the classification may proceed upon the 
twofold method of arranging the order and laws of phe- 
nomena, separately considered, or of considering these in 
their immediate connection. And while either special 
method involves the complex process of nature, which is 
the province of philosophy in the discovery of laws, — the 
object of classification is to set forth the order of facts and 
laws which have already been discovered. It is a state- 
ment of their connections as brought within the scope of 
observation, and as they stand in their completeness of 
order, while many facts may still remain unknown. Pro- 
cesses are continually going on in the physical realm, as 
exhibited in the heavens and in the earth. It is hence not 
a statement of historical development of each particular 
science, nor of the body of sciences. It is not an arrange- 
ment according to the chronological order of discovery of 
the facts. It is not a curriculum or course of study for dis- 
cipline and acquisition. Such a course, is arranged with 
reference to a harmonious development of mind, and 
requires the prosecution of diverse studies pursued simul- 
taneously. Yet a proper classification proceeds upon the 
method of arranging or grouping the subordinate sciences 
according to both the order of philosophic inquiry, and of 
the subordination of facts and principles to the divisions 
and uses of science from the lower to the higher, and from 
phenomena to laws and applications. 

Further, any scheme of classification, founded upon 
material existences and relations irrespective of the imma- 
terial entities which give qualities and motion to the mate- 
rial, must be radically defective. The fact of an order of 
succession in respect to the modication of the primary 
Force which inheres in matter, is too obvious to need more 
than a statement of the fact. Thus, in organic existence, 



14 Science and Philosophy. 

the all-related force of Gravity is general, being applied to 
all bodies, whatever their constituents or mode of combina- 
tion, while modified forms of this principle are limited to 
specializations. As at every step in the gradation of ma- 
terial existences, the order of nature is from the inorganic 
to the organic, so these terms involve the general and the 
special, and the addition proceeds from the lower and more 
general forms of force to the higher, more limited and 
special. Thus, also, in organic being we find Life as a 
common or general substance or entity, forming the basis 
of the general division of science denominated Biology. 
The lowest specialized form of life pertains to Botany, — 
the science of organic unconscious vegetal life, including 
many classes ; the next higher pertains to Zoology, which 
is the science of that form of organic life which has con- 
sciousness and animation, including many classes, and sub- 
ordinate orders, kinds and species. The highest in the 
gradation of being pertains to Anthropology, the science of 
the form of organic life which is conscious and rational, 
limited to mankind. In every higher order a new capacity 
has been added. It has been a " life unto life." 

This natural order of classification from generals to 
specials, and from the lower to the higher, may be illus- 
trated by the following diagrams, commencing with the 
lower, or gravitation, as in reading the scheme of classifi- 
cation accompanying this paper : 

( Man = organization -f- sensation -f- rational mind. 
Life, •< Animal = organization -f- consciousness and sensation. 
( Plant = organization 

i Special : Chemical affinity. 
Special: Cohesion. 
General: Gravitation. 

The fundamental distinctions of this classification are 
those which pertain to the body of sciences included in the 
scheme given. They are first, Ontology, the science of 
being, or the material or immaterial substances, qualities 
and attributes of universal being. This properly includes 



Classification of Science. 15 

not only the general divisions given, but those which relate 
to the superior orders of being not given, viz. : Angeology, 
Christology and Theology. A classification of all Science, 
therefore, embraces these subjects. Ontology includes 
three general divisions : Cosmology, Biology and Anthro- 
pology. These are arranged in their natural order, as 
based upon the succession of immaterial or spiritual enti- 
ties united with their respective material forms. Such 
order is essentially serial : in other words, there is a grada- 
tion of existences, as just noticed, and as indicated by the 
branch and group-descriptive terms given in the body of 
the scheme, as Physico-dynamic, etc. 

Each general division includes its subordinate divisions 
or departments. Cosmology, the science of inorganic 
nature, includes three departments : Physical, Mechanical 
and Chemical Philosophy. These terms are given in the 
left-hand column. The corresponding terms, which are the 
general names of the sciences grouped together, are given 
in the right-hand column, each special science being defined 
in the middle portion or body of the scheme. The gen- 
eral term, Dynamology, formed upon the Greek etymon 
dunam, is used to designate the science of the immaterial 
principle, Force, as Biology designates the science of the 
vital principle, or Life. Biology and Anthropology include 
the several branches or departments as given. Individuals 
of a group are allied by some mode, principle or law dis- 
tinguishing them from others in special respects. 

The order of these general divisions and branches of 
science, as arranged in the scheme, has been detetermined 
by a study of their relations ; and it is proper to indicate 
the reasons for so determining, especially in the case of 
some of the sciences which by other persons may be as- 
signed different places. 

The line of separating Mathematics from the divisions 
above, indicates that this is not an ontological science, 
though contributing to it, its abstract principles applying 
throughout all the other divisions — cosmology, biology and 
anthropology. It may be termed immaterial, but non-sub- 



16 Science and Philosophy. 

stantive, yet the measurer of all material forms, forces, 
relations and effects. It has been treated as " The univer- 
sal science", and all attempts at classification seem neces- 
sarily to lead to the assignment of this to the first place, on 
whatever basis a scheme is constructed. 

The progress of science within the past few decades, and 
the very wide applications rendering divisions of scientific 
research and use indispensable, has made it necessary more 
and more to distinguish the several subordinate branches 
of a general division with reference to special relations and 
purposes of science. What has been denominated physi- 
cal science in the recent past is found to include too exten- 
sive a field of culture and use, and to require too vast an 
amount of scientific labor in research, analysis and applica- 
tion, both for individual gratification and for the demands 
of science. Then " Natural Philosophy" monopolized the 
whole field. Now Chemical Philosophy has taken the rank 
of a distinct department, and has extended its domain in 
every direction wherever it could find a field of research. 
It has even been obliged to review its own analyses, and to 
criticise its own results, by further experiment upon its 
own elements, to determine whether they are themselves 
compounds. And the analyses have yielded important 
fruits. Kecently four new elements — cesium, rubidium, 
thallium and iridium — have been detected by the new and 
wonderful method of the Spectrum Analysis, a notice of 
which will be given farther onward. 

But Mechanical philosophy has an equal claim to distinc- 
tion as a special department. Its aims and uses are prac- 
tical — the relations and applications of matter and motion 
to mechanical effects ; and in this age of inventive genius 
and of vastly extended applications of mechanical force to 
the demands of utility, give increasing importance to this 
department of science. The distinguishing triumphs of 
the past few years have resulted from the conservation of 
those forces and agencies which appear phenomenally in 
their general relations in physical nature, but are now 
specialized in this department for the higher uses of human 



Classification of Science. 17 

society. Thus the form of force which has operated nat- 
urally as heat in all the previous history of matter, has 
become a science in mechanical philosophy, manipulated 
and controlled by scientific art, and takes the name of 
Thermotics, a science of vast extent and application. Hy- 
drology has become specialized in Hydro-dynamics, Aerol- 
ogy in Pneumatics, Electricity in Electro-magnetism, etc. 
The subdivision of Physico-dynamic science into three 
departments — Physics, Mechanics and Chemics — seem 
to be demanded by the vastly extended range and special 
applications of these, as well as by the legitimate distinc- 
tion recognized between phenomena and laws. 

Cosmogony is treated as a branch of Astronomy. It is 
obvious this is its place, from the fact that Stellar Astron- 
omy grows out of it, and includes its forming masses and 
nebular states. This contemplates a prior state, and the 
processes of the formation of special masses from the 
original mass of nebulous matter. . The advancement from 
nebulous masses to globes in the various stages of conden- 
sation gives stellar astronomy. The sun is one of the stars, 
and is specialized as the center of the system to which our 
planet belongs, and hence solar astronomy is a consequent, 
and its place above stellar astronomy is appropriate. 
Again: our earth, far back in the periods of world-forma- 
tions, was in its cosmogenic stage, forming part of* the 
great nebulous cosmos ; hence the term geogony, the science 
of the genesis of the earth, is grouped with cosmogony. 
But while the greater part of the earth's interior is still in 
its gaseous state, the facts pertaining to its crust create a 
new sub-group, as Geology, Mineralogy and Seismology. 

Biology is divided into two general departments, while 
it includes three sub-sciences, viz! : Botany or Phytology, 
Zoology and Anthroposophy, — the latter being the science 
of the human physiological constitution. The radical dis- 
tinction between animals and man pertains chiefly to the 
immaterial nature — the latter possessing rational and 
moral capacities, and also an order of physical nature 
not possessed by animals ; yet a real distinction obtains 



18 Science and Philosophy. 

physiologically, and indeed a vastly greater difference than 
between any of the different orders of animals. This dis- 
tinction is stated in the classification. Physiology, which 
pertains to man's physical nature, is the sub-science of 
Biology, termed Anthroposophy, while comparative physi- 
ology, and morphology, belong respectively to Zoology and 
Phytology — the former relating to beings having sentient 
but irrational life, and the latter to insentient or uncon- 
scious life. 

If this method of division, in which Biology and Anthro- 
pology share in the inclusion of a special subject appears 
to be anomalous, it is legitimate ; for while both include 
those sciences which are grouped as belonging to physio- 
logical nature, Anthropology includes also the higher order 
of psychical nature, in essential connection with our mental, 
rational and moral nature, — entities and attributes of an 
imperishable subsistence, but whose functions and develop- 
ment for temporal existence depend upon the physiological 
connection. It will be observed in the scheme that the 
proper distinctions of signification are preserved, thus: 
Biology is the general science of organic being having 
Life ; Botany is the special science of organic being hav- 
ing vegetal life / Zoology is the special science of organic 
being having sentient life ; Anthroposophy is the special 
science of organic being having rational life — the latter 
term having been chosen to express the distinction main- 
tained above. If it is held by any readers of this paper 
that animals possess a psychical nature, as well as man, be 
it so. At least a nervo-ethereal nature may be predicated 
of beings having sensation and the power of voluntary 
motion; and such a substratum or basis of the physical as 
well as the sentient nature of animals, as corresponds with 
man's psychical nature, may exist, perhaps must. If so, it 
is reasonable to presume it must be of an order as much 
lower than man's psychical nature, as the mental or sentient 
constitution of animals is lower than man's. But if such 
psychical nature does exist, the fact can be known only by 
rational induction, for the beast has no capacity for Ian- 



Classification of Science. 19 

guage to verify the assumption. The essential difference, 
physiologically as well as mentally, is expressed in the 
scheme. 

INCOMPLETE, SUBORDINATE AND CONDITIONING SCIENCES. 

Few of the physical sciences, especially, can be com- 
pletely developed by themselves. Physics, Mechanics and 
Chemics are more or less mutually related, either as con- 
ditioned or conditioning. Astronomy has necessarily re" 
quired for observation of its facts some of the principles 
and laws of physical optics, while scientific art has been 
called to construct appropriate instruments for observation, 
as the telescope and spectroscope. And the laws of plan- 
etary and stellar motion must necessarily be known before 
the science of astronomy can be fully acquired. But classi- 
fication cannot await the discovery of all the facts of science, 
but must proceed with the materials at hand, when radical 
distinctions have been determined. 

Geogony treats of general phenomena, the unformed, 
but forming and mingling elements, and conditions meteor- 
ology by furnishing the materials involved in the latter 
science, in its special sphere. 

Meteorology cannot be completed as a science by the 
study of the atmosphere alone, but in connection with the 
facts which reveal themselves by the action of atmospheric 
electricity. Thermotics, the science of heat, is but par- 
tially developed by the study of the ethereal radiations 
giving the physical phenomena of heat, but finds its com- 
pletion in the experiments and application of mechanics, 
of hydrology and pneumatics. 

Paleontology, being allied with mineralogy in respect to 
the general process of stratification, by furnishing mate- 
rials which enter into it, properly belongs where it is as- 
signed ; yet these materials, constituted in part of fossils, 
cannot be completed without employing the facts which are 
brought forward in vital organisms. Hence paleontology 
is given as a conditioning science, contributing to botany 
and zoology, inasmuch as the ancient organisms, while 



20 Science and Philosophy. 

many of them contain extinct types, are made a study in 
connection with living organisms ; and thus the apparent 
anomaly of the same branch of science being grouped both 
with physics and biology, is explained by the fact that 
paleontology, in its mere physical relations, deals with sub- 
stances irrespective of relations to organisms, while fos- 
silogy belongs to both. So, as already noticed, anthrop- 
osophy belongs both to biology and anthropology. So of 
other sciences having different connections as indicated by 
the terms arranged within the body of the scheme contigu- 
ous to the column of sciences at the right. It may here be 
stated that in the sub-column terms, expressive of incom- 
plete and subordinate sciences, or having other relations, 
are included in brackets. 

Light and sound are grouped together because produced 
by vibratory motion, yet not affiliated, because the media 
of vibration differ, the former being ether and the latter air, 
The analogy between light and sound is illustrated by firing 
a cannon at a distance from the observer ; first the flash of 
light is seen at the moment of the explosion of the powder, 
transmitted at the rate of about 184,000 miles per second, 
the sound being heard some moments after the flash is seen, 
transmitted, at the rate of about 1,100 feet per second. 
Neither the luminous body nor the sonorous body throws 
off any substance, but only gives an impulse in wave-form 
causing vibrations of different kinds of substance, — ethereal 
vibrations exciting the optic nerve causing the sensation 
of seeing, and aerial vibrations exciting the auditory nerves 
causing the sensation of hearing. But while acoustics (or 
photology) is grouped with physical optics, in respect to 
the cause of their production, both musical sounds and 
colors are grouped as belonging to esthetics high in the 
series of science. In these respects both phonology and 
photology are subordinate sciences. 

Actinism, produced by vibration of ether, like light, but 
exceeding in rate those which produce the highest color, 
i.e., exceeding 800 billions of miles per second, is affiliated 
with electricity, light and heat, and bears relations to two 



Classification of Science. 21 

diverse and widely separated sciences — photography and 
phytology. Its action is both chemical and vital, operating 
on the sensitive silver in photography (which more prop- 
erly may be termed actinography), and also constitutes the 
vital agency necessary to excite germination in plants. 
This latter result has been attributed to the violet ray re- 
vealed by the spectrum, but this may be owing to the fact 
that the higher, inconceivably rapid vibrations of ether 
producing the actinic rays are not appreciated, and the 
effects in germination have been associated with the highest 
rays of light brought within the scope of vision. Actinism 
is hence grouped generally with sound, and specially with 
heat, light and electricity, but is subordinate to botany. 
There are reasons for the theory that electricity is concerned 
in normal vital action — not only vegetal, but animal. 

Nature has anticipated both the mechanic and the fine 
arts. Far down in the depths of mineralogy are found 
gems of rarest beauty — the esthetics of Architecture. Up 
in the field of meteorology the clouds are tinted by the 
sunbeams with a perfection of beauty surpassing the possi- 
bilities of the esthetic art of Painting. "The music of the 
spheres" have for centuries enchanted the votaries of astro- 
nomical science, and still challenges the admiration of all 
observers contemplating the perfection of that grand choral 
movement which excels the harmony of a Handel or 
Beethoven, — anticipating the rhythm both of Poetry and 
Music. Mineralogy, meteorology and astronomy belong to 
physical science, but they have furnished elements of the 
esthetic forms which reason appropriates in the sphere and 
achievements of the Fine Arts. 

Note.— I haye chosen the natural method of commencing the scheme 
at the lower part of the paper to be read upward, the suggestion having 
been taken from the diagrams of Pres. Hopkins, in his " Outline Study 
of Man." 



II. 



RECENT PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 

The progress of Science within our own times has been 
wonderful. Prof. Helmholtz uses the following language : 
' ' The contemplation of the astounding activity in all 
branches of science may well make us stand aghast at the 
audacity of man, and exclaim with the Chorus in the Anti- 
gone : Who can survey the whole field of knowledge ? 
Who can grasp the clues, and then thread the labyrinth?" 
Every department of science has been vastly extended, and 
every votary of science stimulated to untiring efforts to 
survey this field, not only, but to enter the secret chambers 
of knowledge to find the treasures concealed from the 
human mind, until modern discoveries, modern analysis, 
and modern invention have combined to make those hitherto 
hidden facts of science known, and available to practical 
benefits to human society. 

The exact science, Mathematics, has found ample room 
for the application of its principles and methods of deter- 
mining the content of all material existences and relations. 
The sublime science, Astronomy, has reveled in its excur- 
sions into illimitable space, adding new triumphs, discover- 
ing new facts pertaining to the constitution of the stellar 
universe, and the relations of the celestial masses, measur- 
ing, by the agency of light, the immense distances, magni- 
tudes and motions of the tiny objects which the natural 
eyes behold in the expanse above, and in former times re* 



24 Science and Philosophy. 

garded as " fixed stars." The profound science, Geology, 
has carried us back into the illimitable depths of past dura- 
tion, to contemplate the usually slow process by which the 
earth has been changing from its primordeal, nebulous con- 
dition, to that in which it has become fitted for living and 
rational beings, adding new testimonies of the rocks to the 
truth of Scripture, expressed by the significant language : 
" Of old hast thou laid the foundations of the earth." The 
widely related, efficient science, included in the scope of 
terrestrial Mechanics, has found abundant use for its forces, 
and the practical application of its dynamics, in the con- 
stantly increasing demands of human society. The splen- 
did and delicate science, Chemistry, has exulted in its new 
and valuable discoveries in the realm of atoms and mole- 
cules, verifying the atomic theory, and adding new evi- 
dences that many of the supposed elements of matter are 
really compounds, and must yield to the searching analysis 
which finds them to be but molecules composed of two or 
more atoms. The vast and richly diversified science, Biol- 
ogy, has yielded its living evidences of the progressing 
series of organic natures, and of the vast scope of its his- 
tory, extending its relations to ancestries, the periods of 
whose origin belong to the immeasurable epochs of palaeon- 
tological history. The crowning, all-conserving science, 
Anthropology, has added new evidences of its superiority 
in importance, as it stands highest in the scale of associated 
sciences ; and while it has maintained this highest rank by 
maintaining the honor of its subject-matter, its votaries 
have found its latest and greatest achievement in the evi- 
dences of a formal psychical constitution as the basis of 
mental action. 

It is not the aim of the writer to pursue the history of the 
development of the sciences, exhaustively, but to indicate 
some of the lines of progress. 

The brilliant discoveries in Astronomy, within the past 
few years, have added largely to the wealth of this noble 
science, fascinating the student, and inspiring to new 
achievements. Previous to the present century, the solar 



Recent Progress of Science. 25 

system included seven primary planets as having at that 
time been discovered. In the year 1800 a new planet was 
discovered, and designated an asteroid, or small star, — but 
it is more properly called a planetoid, or small planet. The 
name by which this is known is Ceres, after the reputed 
originator, or god, of corn. It was an event of so great 
interest to astronomers that it was announced with much 
eclat that "The long-expected planet between Mars and 
Jupiter had been discovered." Soon after, three more 
were observed. Since that time, by means of the greatly 
increased power of telescopes, more than two hundred have 
been added by discovery, all being very small. Many 
others will be found. The problem still to be determined 
has been, whether these planetoids are "fragments of a 
broken world", as formerly supposed, or separate conden- 
sations from cosmic matter, instead of forming one large 
body, as in the case of other primary planets. It is not 
probable, however, that a single cosmic mass exploded at 
any one period, producing such fragments in such positions 
in their orbits as they maintain, nor that such original 
mass was so dissipated by the action of a propulsive or 
radiate force at one time, as to resume its original nebulous 
state. The second hypothesis is the more probable, viz. : 
of separate condensations from original nebulosity. 

Neptune, one of the largest planets, and nearly twice the 
distance of Herschel from the sun, was discovered in 1846 
by M. Challis, of Paris, and its elements and orbit deter- 
mined by Le Yerrier. The discovery of this planet fur- 
nished a satisfactory explanation of the aberrations of the 
planet Herschel, caused by the approximations of Neptune, 
though distant, at its nearest point, more than a billion and 
a half miles. This increase of the number of the solar' 
family furnished an additional illustration, on a grand scale, 
of the laws of universal gravitation and of celestial mechan- 
ics. Added to this have been discoveries abundantly con- 
firming the theory of stellar motion in groups, clusters and 
nebulae, " the places of more than 200,000 stars having 
already been determined", and we have some conception 



26 Science and Philosophy. 

of the vastness of human achievements, and of the possibil- 
ities still awaiting discoveries in this illimitable "field of 
ether. ' ' 

The universality and laws of primary force, denominated 
Gravitation, have been subjects of exceeding interest, as 
they pertain to this primary mode of motion. The fact of 
an attractive Force acting either upon or within bodies by 
which they tend to approach each other, arrested the atten- 
tion, about the year 1600, of the elder Galileo, who ex- 
tended the principle to all terrestrial bodies. Newton, 
eighty years afterward, studying this principle, and at the 
suggestion, it is said, of the fall of an apple, found that 
there was a definite increase of velocity of bodies approach- 
ing the earth, and also that the same kind of attractive 
force must apply to the moon, while a centrifugal force, 
either generated from the attractive force or originated from 
an extraneous force, continued this secondary planet around 
the earth. This was the first grand step toward the dis- 
covery of the laws of gravitation, applicable to the motion 
of the earth around the sun, and, generally, to all planets. 
More recently the principle has been applied to comets, 
stellar and other masses. 

Geology, while below chemistry in the order of nature 
and classification, had made far less progress in develop- 
ment at the commencement of the present century, a fact 
which might have been presumed, inasmuch as the latter 
science has ministered especially to the wants of mankind. 
According to Buckland, it was at that time "without a 
name." The general features of geology had been sketched 
by Leibnitz and Hooke more than a century previous. 
Near the beginning of the present century the outlines of 
the subject were classified into three general divisions of 
formations — the primitive, the secondary and the tertiary. 
These became the subjects of investigation, historically, in 
the order named. The first, especially, by Werner, of 
Germany, who examined chiefly the primitive and transi- 
tion rocks. The second by Wm. Smith (English), whose 
observations were first published in 1799. The third by 



Recent Progress of Science. 27 

Cuvier and Brougniart (French), whose works upon " Or- 
ganic Kemains" and "Mineral Geography" were pub- 
lished in 1808. During the past half century this science 
has advanced with other sciences, with yastly increased 
interest and success, rendering this one of the most fasci- 
nating, especially in more recent times, in yielding its 
stores of facts pertaining to the glacial period, the deposi- 
tion of metallic substances, experiments showing the order 
and conditions of the cooling processes, resulting in the 
different mineral states, and the wonderful revelations of 
paleontological history, together with many other facts of 
great interest, but which cannot, in this paper, be specially 
given. These give abundant confirmation to the theory 
that immense periods of time, measured by millions of 
years, have passed during this history, dissipating the 
doctrine formerly held by many as taught in the Scriptures, 
that the heavens and the earth were created, out of nothing, 
about six thousand years ago. 

Among the departments of science which minister to the, 
wants of human society, none has awakened the spirit of 
invention and improvement at all to compare with that of 
Mechanics. With the increase of knowledge, there has 
been a correspondingly increasing demand for instruments 
of discovery and analysis, not only, but for the application 
of scientific skill in the invention of motive powers and the 
means of the transmission of intelligence, as well as imple- 
ments of handicraft, of agriculture, etc. The steam power, 
first utilized by the invention of a machine in 1655, and 
improved by Watt in 1774, inaugurated its grand work for 
human society in 1806, when Eobert Fulton, after repeated 
experiments, applied this power to the propulsion of vessels, 
-first on the Hudson river, amazing the thousands who wit- 
nessed the successful experiment, and introducing a new 
propelling power to vessels upon the sea, now bearing their 
burdens, estimated by millions of tons, on every river and 
over every lake and sea of earth. This power has added 
incalculable millions to the material wealth and strength of 
every civilized nation. The last world-wide application of 



28 Science and Philosophy. 

this power, besides its innuinerous minor applications to all 
kinds of mechanical work, was inaugurated in 1821, when 
it was successfully applied to the propulsion of railroad 
trains. 

In 1819 Electro-magnetism was first applied to mechani- 
cal purposes ; and in 1831 the Magnetic Telegraph, for the 
transmission of intelligence, was invented and successfully 
applied. And now, even the comparatively coarse medium, 
air, has aided in business and social communications, at 
trifling expense, by means of the recently invented Tele- 
phone and the Phonograph. 

Chemistry has shared richly in the results of recent sci- 
entific progress, and has ministered richly to the wants of 
human society. Three centuries ago, Paracelsus boasted 
of possessing the " philosopher's stone", by which the 
baser metals were said to be transmuted into gold; but he 
gave a new direction to the efforts and objects of Alchemy, 
insisting that its chief aim should be the preparation of 
medicines of different kinds for different diseases. But 
Chemistry, as a science, must date its commencement two 
centuries later, when the analyses of distinguished scholars, 
as Scheele, of Sweden, and Dr. Black, of Glasgow Univer- 
sity, and the Academies of Science at Berlin and Paris, 
determined important principles of this science. 

The discoveries of Sir Humphrey Davy, in the early part 
of the present century, gave a new impetus to this branch, 
leading to chemical analyses and the establishment of chem- 
istry as a science. These have been followed by eras of 
progress which have brought the subject to a high degree 
of perfection. Now, the four elements of the ancients, and 
of the alchemists of comparatively recent times — earth, 
air, fire, and water — have been found by successive analy- 
ses to contain sixty -five elements, the last four having been 
detected by the new and wonderful method called the Spec- 
trum Analysis. It may be here stated what this method 
is, for the gratification of any whose attention may not have 
been called especially to it. 

It is well known that a spectrum is an image formed by 



Recent Progress of Science. 29 

the light of the sun, or any other luminous body, either as 
direct or reflected rays', passing through a triangular piece 
of glass called a prism. The colored lines thus formed by 
differently refracted and dispersed rays, reveal the nature 
and qualities of the elements contained in the luminous 
body by the different colors, combinations, and the phe- 
nomena presented, compared with previous results of ex- 
periment in the laboratory, upon light reflected from differ- 
ent mineral substances. It has been found that every kind 
of mineral substance, whether in the form of a solid, gas, 
or nebulous matter, when in a state of intense luminosity, 
possesses the capacity to emit a specific color, with its 
accompanying mixed lines. This being known, when a 
new body is analysed by its light, its constituents are de- 
termined by the lines of light. Thus the solar envelops, 
protuberances, etc., of the sun are examined by the analysis 
of the solar spectrum. By this -method, the character of 
comets, meteors, or other celestial masses are determined. 
By this the problem of the sudden appearance or disappear- 
ance of stellar masses is explained, by determining the 
state of the mass thus emitting light, and the conditions of 
luminosity. What the telescope has failed to determine 
in respect to the elements and qualities of bodies, or the 
nature of nebulous masses, whether such masses are clus- 
ters of stars in the infinite distance, or of original, unformed 
nebulous matter, the spectroscope has accomplished; and 
what has been held by most astronomers as a theory, has 
become confirmed as a fact, that, as Prof. Schellen says, 
"luminous nebulae actually exist as isolated bodies in space, 
and these bodies are masses of gas. ' ' Thus, clusters, groups, 
stars and planets, are in process of genesis from primeval 
cosmic matter, and Cosmology may be regarded as a science, 
established by the aid of art in the construction of larger 
telescopes, and their new associate in the field of stellar 
research, the spectroscope, bring within the scope of obser- 
vation new facts, and confirming the generally received 
theory of the nebular constitution and the genesis of the stel- 
lar and planetary systems from such original cosmic matter. 



30 Science and Philosophy. 

The conservation of all the lower departments of science 
to the wants of man, in his individual and social relations, 
gives a vast superiority of rank to Anthropology. In re- 
cent times, the chief points of practical importance in the 
progress or development of this science have pertained to 
Sociology. Eesearches in special lines of investigation 
have furnished many facts of great interest pertaining to 
antiquities, archives of ancient cities, inscriptions upon 
rocks, hieroglyphics and monuments, which have yielded 
abundant fruits to explorers, and vastly increased the knowl- 
edge of particular races and languages ; while increasing 
evidences are furnished that the antiquity of the human 
race is much greater than that indicated by the generally 
accepted chronology. 

In the department of Philology, great progress has been 
made during the period of our own times. Comparative 
Philology is no longer confined to the Latin and Greek of 
the ancient languages, and two or three of the modern lan- 
guages, but every language of the globe is yielding rich 
fruits bearing upon history as well as philology ; especially 
has the Sanscrit, the mother of all the Indo-European 
languages, received special attention, resulting in the estab- 
lishment of professorships of the Sanscrit in several col- 
leges. 

But questions of the highest interest pertain to Psychol- 
ogy, especially relating to our psychical nature and its con- 
nection with our physiological constitution, to the phenom- 
ena of " Unconscious cerebration", and other facts which 
have elicited research in the modes of receiving and retain- 
ing sensations and the memory of facts, and into the 
medium of transmitting such impressions. Such inquiries 
have led to the adoption of the following theory of account- 
ing for these phenomena, viz. : that the psychical constitu- 
tion is not simply mental or spiritual, but is dual or two- 
fold, consisting of two substances we may conveniently 
term respectively ethereal and spiritual. The following 
rational deductions are given as the only satisfactory hy- 
potheses pertaining to our interior being, viz. : That the 



Recent Progress of Science. 31 

great rapidity of the transmission of impressions, being at 
least 100 feet per second from the extreme parts of our 
physical system to the brain, or requiring but one-fifteenth 
of a second to produce a sensation, involves the necessity 
of the existence of an ethereal substance permeating the 
nerves, and hence called " nervous ether", which forms 
the elementary substance of the formal psychical nature. 
That, as the physical germ is the initial organism of the 
future physical body, "potentially alive", in the germinal 
state, so this nervous ether contains the psychical germ or 
initial organism of the future psychical body, potentially 
perfected, and which emerges in its real or developed form 
upon the death of the physical body, or properly its sepa- 
ration from the soul, or interior being. That the psychical 
nature, while connected with the physical, forms the 
basis of vital action, continuity and identity ; and that the 
mechanism of thought and feeling involves the necessity of 
two psychical centers of activity, corresponding with the 
brain and heart, viz. : the psychical sensorium, which is the 
seat of intellectual action, the basis of sensation, memory, 
etc., and the psychical cardium, the seat of the emotional 
and sympathetic affections. 

Scientific progress has both increased the number of 
special sciences and extended the limits of those previously 
known. This has created the necessity of the division of 
scientific research, inducing students to pursue single lines 
of inquiry, the result being more thorough and extensive 
knowledge of the respective departments, which have be- 
come the common heritage. Examples of this devotion to 
special sciences are now numerous in every department, as 
in the case of the late Prof. L. Agassiz, who devoted many 
years to the study of animalculaB. In the history of plants 
and animals, species, genera, and even classes have been 
multiplied, as individuals have devoted their lives to these 
subjects, with all the helps at command, leaving no depths 
unexplored. The anatomist and physiologist no longer 
confine attention to the human structure, but find in com- 
parative anatomy and physiology many types and char- 
acteristics brought forward and perfected in the higher 



82 Science and Philosophy. 

orders, or old forms substituted by new, till finally, in the 
human constitution the completed form best adapted, not 
to the lower purposes of physical strength and endurance, 
by which the animal subserves human ends, but the best 
form for the higher ends of intellectual, moral and social 
natures by which man is evidently distinguished above the 
brute. 

This division of labor has been found essential in applica- 
tion to the numerous sciences now demanding vastly in- 
creased forces of professional teachers in colleges and 
universities. Now, a college can scarcely claim the name 
of a liberal institution of learning in which one professor 
is required to associate sciences so unnaturally connected 
as Mathematics and Moral Philosophy, or Chemistry, 
Botany and Pharmacy, as in some European colleges a 
century ago. A comparison of the courses of study and 
the professorships in colleges in our country during the 
past thirty or forty years will exhibit the marked advance- 
ment of the sciences, and the increased requirements of the 
present time. In 1837, Geneva College, now Hobart Col- 
lege, Geneva, N. Y., of which the writer was a student, 
contained a professorship of "Mathematics and Natural 
Philosophy"; of the "Latin and Greek languages"; of 
" Modern languages, History and Belles-Lettres", to which 
was added Rhetoric and two other mixed professorships. 
For the year 1849-1850, the catalogue of Western Reserve 
college, Hudson, O., of which the writer had been a theo- 
logical student, exhibits the following: The institution 
embraced three departments : General Science, Medicine, 
and Theology, besides a preparatory department. Five 
professors gave instruction in General Science, or the Lit- 
erary department ; one of which was the professor of the 
"Latin and Greek" ; one of " Chemistry, History, Medical 
Jurisprudence (in the Medical department), and Natural 
History", — the latter embracing several branches, includ- 
Geology ! and one professor of "Modern Languages." 
Great advancement upon this order is now exhibited in the 
principal colleges of our land. I here name only three : 
In 1875, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., had twenty pro- 
fessors and adjunct professors, besides tutors, assistants 
and lecturers — twenty-seven in all. The University of 
Wooster, O., in 1876, had thirteen instructors in the Liter- 
ary department, and the same number in the Medical 
department. The Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Mich., 
in 1877, had, in all departments, fifty-live instructors. 



Ill 



PAIST-DUALISM. 

[Copyright 1881. Samuel Fleming.] 

The term used to designate the Science of Being, is' On- 
tology : from ontos, being, and logos, doctrine. It is here 
used, in its broadest signification, to include universal being, 
derived and underived. The term Universe (from .unus, 
one, versum, to turn), originally limited to the phenomena 
of the revolving firmament, is now generally used to signify 
the all-related system of being, and hence applies to all 
created or derived beings as bound together by one set of 
laws for ultimate ends, as contained in the plans of the 
Creator. 

Different, and often conflicting, theories respecting the 
origin and nature of being have been maintained from the 
earliest ages of philosophic thought. 

Dualism is the doctrine of two principles, beings or 
natures. Ancient dualism, held in modified forms, may 
be stated generally to have been either the theory of two 
original principles, one active and the other passive, or 
that which maintained that there are two deities, one good 
and the other evil ; as opposed to the hypothesis of one 
principle or being, which was Monism. 

Pan-Dualism, or Neo- Dualism, announced and main- 
tained in this work, is the doctrine of the Dual nature of 
all Being, or of two inseparably, co-existing and mutually 
depending subsistences in every order of being. The pecul- 
iarity of this hypothesis consists in its including universal 
being, hence the propriety of the term Pan-Dualism. The 
3 



34: Science and Philosophy. 

general terms used to designate the two subsistences coher- 
ing in every order of being, are Matte?' and Spirit. Be- 
cause of this modern and new application of the term dual- 
ism, the prefix neo is significant, as Neo-Dualism. 

It is sufficiently evident to most minds that the theory 
here maintained is true as applied to man and the lower 
animals, and by many as applied to vegetal life, while a 
few maintain the theory of a spiritual force, or, as it may 
be stated in a negative form, an immaterial nature, as ap- 
plied to inorganic beings. The author of this work extends 
the doctrine of realistic dualism to in elude universal being, 
not excepting the infinite Source of all material and spirit- 
ual entities. The scheme of Classification of Science, given 
in this work, is based upon the hypothesis here announced, 
the terms of the fundamental subjects, — cosmology, bi- 
ology, and anthropology, expressing the doctrine as it 
relates to all mundane orders. 

The author holds that the phenomena both of matter 
and spirit are referable to real entities ; that every order of 
dependent being, as to its form and peculiarity, owes its 
origin to a special act or "operation" of the Creator, pur- 
suant to a pre-arranged plan of succession and progress, 
proceeding from the lower to the higher, and that this plan 
has included beings of all preceding cosmoses ; that types 
and essential qualities which had entered into the constitu- 
tion of lower orders are incorporated in succeeding and 
higher orders, with super-added capacities, — it has been a 
"life unto life;" and that species and varieties have been 
evolved from the inherent properties and functions of the 
general orders, promoted, it may have been, by the varied 
relations of associated existences and adaptations. It is 
also maintained that all forms of truth, — physical, biologi- 
cal, mental and rational, — are in essential harmony with 
each other; that all true science points primarily to original 
facts, fundamental principles and laws or modes of action; 
that, pursued to their basal conception, all facts, all laws, 
all light and knowledge, all purity and perfection, relate 
to the Fountain of all being ; and so, rightly understood, 



Pan- Dualism. 35 

all scientific truth is essentially allied with all religious 
truth, that these are complements of each other, like the 
vast domains of matter and spirit which they represent and 
unfold. 

The true philosopher, seeking facts and discovering 
modifications of antecedent facts, which both Nature and 
Revelation are constantly yielding to patient and liberal 
research, ' ' will not be found questioning the authority of 
the Scriptures, when some new and at first apparently 
opposing scientific truth is discovered, but only some 
human, dogmatic interpretation, as if it were itself the 
Word of God." Nor will the seeker after " more light" 
discard those forms of truth which relate to man's interior, 
psychical and imperishable materiality, or the evidences of 
a corresponding divine nature, which a rational philosophy 
demands as necessary deductions and interpretations of 
derived natures. It is the want of the reciprocal recogni- 
tion and conservation of all truth that embarrasses the 
solution of the final great and earnestly sought problems 
of our own constitution and of universal being. 

Human knowledge is finite and partial. " We know in 
part." And because this has been true of all human 
thought and attainments, there has frequently obtained 
modifications of what had been cherished as settled faiths, 
induced by research into special departments of the broad 
field of Science. We have only to examine the history of 
thought and philosophic inquiry to be convinced of this 
Statement. Take the following examples for illustration : 
Who does not know how recently it was the common faith 
alike of the votaries of religion and of science, that the 
earth was the center of the universe, around which the 
sun, moon and stars in their courses revolved ? So, also, 
down to a recent period, it was the common faith of 
Christians that the universe was called into existence "out 
of nothing," and the earth furnished with its almost infinite 
variety of creatures of different orders as now found, in the 
space of six time-measured days of twenty-four hours each, 
about 6,000 years ago. It is not strange, therefore, that 



36 Science and Philosophy. 

with the greatly increased facilities of modern times for 
researches in both Science and Scripture teachings, there 
should obtain such modifications of faith as a true philos- 
ophy demands. 

Matter and Spirit. 

It is held by the author that Matter and Spirit constitute 
the two co-existing- entities of all being. In the present 
state, whatever may be the fact in the future state, we have 
no capacities for cognizing the essences of either, and may 
well acknowledge, with a profound writer [Blaise Pascal], 
that " we know not what matter is, still less what spirit is, 
and least of all how these two are united in the same 
being." Dr. Turnbull [Theophenies] has propounded the 
following inquiries : "What is matter? what its essence 
and mode of existence % how does it link itself with spirit ? 
What is mind ? — its nature and essence, — its mode of ex- 
istence, — its ineffable relation to God and the universe ? 
What is God?" Involved in such mysteries, with no 
capacities for penetrating into the essence of things, we 
can only define both matter and spirit in terms expressive 
of their phenomena and effects. But these two kinds of 
substance are essentially opposite in respect to properties, 
susceptibilities and capacities. Matter is inert, or passive, 
— susceptible of being moved or acted upon, and is the 
vehicle of spiritual existence and action. Spirit possesses 
the inherent nature of self-activity, though primevally 
latent, as will be shown ; it has the capacity for causing 
motion or change of state and constitution in matter. The 
one has formal existence, the other diffusive ; each, as 
evolved and acting, has its peculiar laws and modes so un- 
like that neither could have been derived from the other. 
They are essentially diverse, yet they so act and re-act 
mutually, both in the cosmic and higher orders of being, 
as to indicate an essential connection, at least of some kind 
or mode, so that it may be stated generally that they are 
co-existent, co-etaneous, and co-related. 



Pan- Dualism — Ether and Potential Force. 37 

The following diagrammatic representation is intended to illustrate the 
original and derived material and spiritual natures of all orders of being 
in the universe, so far as the facts of such orders have been revealed 
either by Nature or the Scriptures. The circle is the symbol both of 
infinity and perfection, representing the underived Being. On the left 
of the circle and of the central division are represented the material 
natures of the respective orders, and on the right the spiritual natures. 
The idea of the origination of all finite being by mediation is suggested 
by the place occupied by the word Logos. The subjects will be treated 
in the order of rank from the lower to the higher, commencing with 
beings constituting the present mundane system. 



ORDERS OF UNIVERSAL BEING. 
" The Fountain of Life."— Ps. 36: 9. 



-S g£ ( Source of Material Nature x""*N Source of Spiritual Nature. 

^3 j= •< Immanent Presence ( 1 Immanent Force . 

ja sg ( Theogenetic Material Nature v.^ Theogenetic Spiritual Nature. 



LOGOS. 

Angelic Material Natures Angelic Spiritual Natures . 

[Prior Ethereal and Cosmic Na- 
tures probable 

f Human Psychical Nature Rational Spirit.— Mind. 



Animal Organisms Conscious, Self-directive Instinct. 



_s J Vegetal Organisms Unconscious, Self -directive Life. 

S 1 Cosmic Matter . . Self-active Force. 

^ Ethereal, Self -Subsisting Matter. Potentential, Self -subsisting Force. 

(, in equilibrium .... 



1. Ether and Potential Force. 

The existence of an inconceivably rare and intangible 
form of matter called JEther, or Ether, has been held as a 
hypothesis from an early period of philosophy. One of the 
ancient Greek monistic systems, that of Anaxagoras, was 
founded upon the theory that ether was the original essence 
of the universe, and was without beginning. The term is 
a Greek word, from aitho, to light up, to shine, to keep 
burning, and was applied to the upper or pure air. This 
conception, five hundred years before the Christian era, cor- 
responds well to the chief function which modern philoso- 
phy assigns it, and which the increased facilities for deep 
research and experiments pertaining to its properties have 
aided to establish as a truth of science, viz., its extreme 
elasticity and capacity to transmit heat, light, etc., — a 



38 Science and Philosophy. 

remarkable fact, indeed, because the ancients had no knowl- 
edge of this function, as appears evident from the sup- 
posed limit of this substance to the immediate space above 
the common atmosphere. Plato described it in terms im- 
plying motion, a property belonging to it, indeed, but not 
the visible motion observed as in the twinkling of a star, 
which may have suggested the name ether. 

Huygens, about A.D. 1660, was the first to propose the 
necessity of such a medium as ether to account for the 
transmission of light. Abundant confirmation of the truth 
of this hypothesis has been furnished by the repeated tests 
of experiment, and it is now the accepted doctrine of nearly 
all scientists. Two theories have been held as to its nature : 
one, that it consists of distinct but exceedingly attenu- 
ated atoms ; the other, that it is a continuous fluid which 
u decomposes itself into atoms by the free play ol its own 
force." The author's conception of it is a modification of 
the last, and may be given as a third theory, that it is not 
transmutable, — does not change its state, but is the finite 
source whence the atomic elements of the universe were 
originated, by the inhering self-subsisting Force to which, the 
Creator gave efficiency. By some it has been designated 
a semi-material substance, because its nature differs from 
all other forms of matter. 

Ether may be defined to be the primordial, continuous, 
homogeneous and non-transmutable or permanent state of 
matter, — most subtle or tenuous, most elastic and most 
highly susceptible of vibratory action. It occupies uni- 
versal space, and inter-penetrates all bodies, filling even the 
inter-molecular spaces. It is so subtle and imponderable 
that it offers no appreciable resistence to the most rapid 
motion of atoms or masses. It is the most perfect medium, 
transmitting the vibratory motion, in modified forms, 
which gives the phenomena of heat, light, actinism, and 
electricity, and propagating its vibratory wave-motion of 
extreme rapidity and delicacy through the almost infinite 
spaces unchanged in order and character. It is the in- 
visible body of the cosmic universe, — the medium of com- 



Pan-Dualism — Ether and Potential Force. 39 

munication between the visible and invisible realms, — the 
vail which separates us from the Holy of holies ! 

The extreme tenuity of ether will be understood approxi- 
mately by comparisons : Thus, it is stated that if the par- 
ticles of all the planets, comets and meteoric matter were 
diffused through the entire space encircled by the orbit of 
Neptune, — a diameter of nearly eight billions miles, — the 
ether diffused in the same space would immeasurably ex- 
ceed in tenuity the fine nebulous matter so diffused. Its 
comparable capacity for vibratory motion is expressed by 
hundreds of billions of miles in a second of time. The 
velocity of progress of its wave-forms, producing light and 
heat, is about 185,000 miles per second, or a million times 
that of sound by air- vibrations ; for the transmission of 
electric currents, the rate is estimated at 250,000 miles per 
second. 

That ether is a material substance, appears evident from 
numerous experiments, but is sufficiently obvious from the 
fact that its vibratory action is interrupted by the molecules 
of bodies, which are said to absorbjibr instance, the lumin- 
ous rays, rendering such bodies opake, as iron. Glass 
is transparent because the luminous vibrations of ether pass 
through the inter-spaces of its crystalline molecules without 
causing them to vibrate. 

The description of ether, above given, relates to it chieily 
in its active state, as now existing in connection with atoms, 
in which alone its properties are manifested. It is held 
that it existed antecedently to the cosmic forms of matter 
in its statical condition, or in equilibrium. This seems 
reasonable, from the fact that it belongs to the universal 
order, and its properties or susceptibilities cannot be con- 
ceived as manifested before the evolution of cosmic matter 
which furnishes the conditions of activity, and renders it 
possible for such phenomena to exist. And further, it may 
be reasonably presumed that a harmonious system of being 
should be constituted of orders corresponding in essential 
natures. It will be shown, the author believes, that all the 
subsequent orders are constituted of some form of material 



40 Science and Philosophy. 

and spiritual substances. It is held that these two kinds of 
essence obtained from the beginning ; and that Ether ex- 
isted in equilibrio, Spirit or Force inhering in this primeval 
substance potentially, or in a latent and undeveloped state, 
and that it was as much a reality as in any subsequent or 
active state, as really existing as latent heat in a certain 
condition of cosmic matter. There has been, from the first, 
a co-existence in each order. But the attributes of Force, 
like the physical properties of Ether, could have been known 
only by being brought into an active state. In its original 
state, inhering in Ether, Force was simply self-subsisting, 
possessing the undeveloped capacity for action, but became 
active when brought into cosmic relations. 

The ultimate efficiency of Force in matter is constantly 
dependent upon the Immanent Divine Force, as the sub- 
stance and essential form of all matter constantly depend 
upon the underlying, corresponding essence of the Divine 
material nature. Both Matter and Force are real, self- 
subsisting entities, and though derived from the Fountain 
of all being, they exist as distinctly from the person of the 
Infinite One, as the offspring of plants and animals from 
their parents. 

The author conceives that the state of inactivity previous 
to the evolution of the cosmic elements was the night of 
ante-mundane time, which followed, it may have been, the 
completion of the immeasurably vast cycles during w T hich 
successive orders of angelic beings were created, — whether 
through processes corresponding with those of the cosmic 
state with which we stand related, or through "diversities 
of operations," remains among the deep things which form 
subjects of contemplation in the future state. But it is 
conceived that "before the beginning of the dust of the 
world," before the chaoses of unformed globes and systems, 
before the mineral and liquid fire-mists of nebulous stages, 
before the genesis of the elementary gases or atoms, dark- 
ness and silence, which are the necessary consequences of 
a state of material equilibrium and spiritual latency, reigned 
throughout the vast, ethereal expanse outside the sphere of 



Pan-Dualism — Cosmic Matter and Force. 41 

celestial activities whose center is the eternal Throne of 

Universal Empire, till 

TV Omnific Word the void and silence broke, 
And myriad forms of life successive woke. 

2. Cosmic Matter and Foece. 

This order includes the entire realm of inorganic Nature, 
the subject matter of Physico-Dynamic Science. Upon the 
introduction of this order we may appropriately conceive 
the Divine fiat uttered upon primeval Force inherent in 
primeval Matter, Let there he action; as early in the pro- 
cess of generating terrestrial being from a nebulous condi- 
tion, the fiat was uttered, "Let there be Light." It was 
the dawn of the present mundane system, which broke 
upon the silence and night of preceding cosmoses, conceived 
to have been the arenas of successive orders of angelic be- 
ing, — it may have been also of lower orders. This involved 
the origination of the elements of the present cosmic states 
of matter. To the primary property of Force designated 
above as self -subsistence, there was added the attribute of 
self -activity , and what was but potential became actual 
Force. Thenceforward we are to contemplate action 
throughout the vast expanse of the ethereal realm, hitherto 
in a state of equilibrium. What was in a former epoch an 
immeasurably vast extent of a continuous and inactive sub- 
stance, is now the theater for the exhibition of incalculable 
myriads of individual particles, dotted throughout the un- 
bounded firmament now occupied by the various forms of 
matter, as atoms, molecules and masses ; systems of suns 
with their planets, comets and meteors ; systems of stars, 
groups, clusters and nebulae, extended in space which even 
the most powerful telescopes fail to penetrate ; immensities 
so transcending the grasp of finite mind, that the reverent 
spirit cannot but exclaim, " Great and marvellous are Thy 
works ! Lo ! these are but parts of His ways ; how little 
a portion is heard of Him !" 

To the consideration of the facts of the cosmic order, 
with the evidences of the co-existence of Force with Matter, 



42 Science and Philosophy. 

as manifested in the cosmogenetic processes, and the actual 
dynamic operations of nature, we now give attention. 

Matter exists in four normal states, in each of which it 
has its special characteristics and sphere of action, viz., as 
ether, gas, liquid, and solid. In the ethereal state, matter 
is continuous, permanently elastic, and non-transmutable. 
In the gaseous state, matter exists in particles, is perma- 
nently elastic, and transmutable. "A gas is a substance, a 
finite portion of which will distribute itself through any 
space, however great, to which it has free access." 
[Encyc. Brit.] When free, it is in constant motion, tend- 
ing to fly off in straight lines, and to reflect from other 
particles or objects with which it comes in contact. Gases 
move freely, either in a gaseous or ethereal element. A 
gas may be a single atom, or a compound of two or more 
combined in one element. Thus oxygen, a simple gas, 
united with nitrogen, another simple gas, form air, a com- 
pound gas. In the liquid state, matter consists of a col- 
lection of atoms or molecules, held, in its normal state, 
in contact by either attraction or pressure, while its ele- 
ments continually roll about and among each other. This 
condition results in mutual pressure in every direction. 
Yapor, sometimes treated as existing in a distinct state, 
and sometimes as transparent gas, seems properly to be 
included as belonging to the liquid state, inasmuch as it 
is induced by the force of heat keeping the particles so 
separate that the specific gravity is less than that of air. 
In the solid state, matter consists of a collection of atoms 
or molecules which remain, in its normal state, in nearly 
the same relative positions, each particle being in imper- 
ceptible vibratory motion. 

Of the sixty-five chemical elements, five are in the gas- 
eous state, viz., hydrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and chlorine ; 
three are in the liquid state, viz., mercury, bromine, and 
gallium ; all others are in the solid state. The gaseous 
state is the only one known in which the molecular weights 
of simple and compound elements are determined. While 
a simple gas and a single atom may be contemplated as 



Pan-Dualism — Cosmic Matter and Force. 43 

equivalent, it has been found that many atoms often enter 
the constitution of a compound gaseous element. 

The almost infinite variety of forms in physical nature 
are built out of atoms and molecules. An atom is an indi- 
visible particle, or the simplest elementary substance; i. e., 
one which cannot be separated into parts. A molecule is a 
composite or union of two or more atoms. A chemical 
element is an atom or molecule which may enter into 
chemical combination. 

Several considerations tend to confirm the hypothesis 
that diversity exists among the primary atoms in respect 
to form, magnitude, and property. This inference is de- 
duced from the following, among other facts, generally ac- 
cepted : The atomic weights differ ; thus, the weight of 
hydrogen being 1, nitrogen is 14 ; oxygen, 16 ; chlorine, 
35. The liquid elements differ ; as bromine, 80 ; mercury, 
200. The solid elements differ ; as carbon, 12 ; potassium, 
39 ; iron, 60 ; lead, 200 ; etc. The properties differ ; the 
union of like atoms forms mechanical combinations by co- 
hesive force, while the union of unlike atoms forms chemi- 
cal combinations by chemical affinity. The complex and 
diversified forms and qualities of matter everywhere exhib- 
ited in nature, give evidence that originally the primordial 
atoms must have differed. 

The infinitesimal minitudes of atoms and molecules can- 
not be appreciated, but may be mathematically expressed ; 
thus, it has been estimated that a hydrogen atom is but the 
one five hundred millionth of an inch in diameter ; this 
would aggregate the inconceivable number of 1,250,000,- 
000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms in a cubic inch. 

These specific distinctions of matter being recognized 
and accepted generally as now existing, and as having in 
some respects existed from the period of the origination 
of the elements which enter into the physical forms of be- 
ing, attention is directed to a succinct statement of what 
has generally been conceived to have been the successive 
stages of progress in the evolution of the cosmic system of 
the universe. 



44 Science and Philosophy. 

The philosophers of antiquity generally believed in the 
eternity of matter, although their conceptions of matter, 
for want of the facilities for fundamental analysis for which 
modern science is so wonderfully distinguished, must have 
been very inadequate, as may be inferred from the respect- 
ive bases of their opposing systems of matter ; thus, Thales 
thought that water was the original substance ; Heraclitus, 
that it was fire ; Democritus, that it was atoms, etc. The 
idea of a chaos as the primeval condition of matter, seems 
to have been fundamental in the systems of cosmogony, 
held and taught by the philosophers of Chaldea, Egypt, 
Greece, and other nations. In these systems generally the 
earth was the great world and center of all movement. 
Aristotle and some others held, that not only the earth and 
the visible heavens were without beginning, but the human 
race, vegetal and animal existences. 

Of the diverse systems of modern cosmogony, that which 
most satisfactorily accounts for the general phenomena of 
world formations, is that of Herschel and Laplace ; the lat- 
ter, however, elaborating it into a complete system. In 
this hypothesis, taking the sun as an example, the matter 
of a given solar system is supposed to have been an ex- 
ceedingly diffused nebula, nearly spherical, the scattered 
particles extending beyond the most distant planet, the 
planets not yet having separate existence. This immense 
sphere of vapor or nebulous matter, by the action of grav- 
ity reciprocally upon the separate particles, tended to con- 
densation. The exterior portions, which, being at compar- 
atively great distances from the common center, and were 
not attracted equally with those nearer the center, were at 
length left in a separate ring-form or zone of gaseous mat- 
ter, now luminous, which continued its revolution by the 
centrifugal force given, while the individual particles were 
attracted toward each other; and, in the course of ages,' 
formed a separate globular nebula, thence a more con- 
densed planet. Other portions are supposed to have be- 
come detatched in a similar way, resulting in the system 
of planets now revolving around the sun, which still in- 
cludes a vastly greater amount of matter than the aggre- 
gate of the planets. Secondary planets or moons are sup- 
posed by the hypothesis to have been derived from the 
primary planets. This hypothesis, imperfectly stated, 
indeed, has been held generally as the true cosmogony of 
our own, and of other stellar and planetary systems. A 
few, however, as Proctor [Expanse of Heaven], have with- 



Pan-Dualism — Cosmic Matter and Force. 45 

held assent from this theory. And, indeed, it seems prob- 
able to the author that the theory requires modifications, 
in some respects, to make it accord more perfectly with 
known facts and processes now occurring in the history of 
celestial bodies, but space cannot now be given to the sub- 
ject, except to state generally the stages of progress con- 
ceived to have obtained in the evolution of primeval mat- 
ter in the universal system.* 

The first stage of world-formations was evidently that of 
atoms. These are conceived to have been originally or as 
first evolved of different magnitudes, widely separated in 
the ethereal element, and probably at unequal distances, 
each atom being a force center. The first form of force 
was that of Gravitation, by which the particles compara- 
tively near were drawn together, increasing in velocity as 
they approached, according to the laws of falling bodies. 
Atoms of similar kinds formed molecules by cohesion, and 
those of different kinds united by chemical affinity, form- 
ing compound elements. Vast ages must have been re- 
quired for these preliminary operations to produce changes 
of relative position, convergence and counter-action, before 
such union of elements had taken place sufficiently to de- 
velop the force of Repulsion, causing their segregation and 
new conditions of aggregation. 

The second stage was that of the aggregation of atoms 
in the form of nebulous masses. During this second series 
of movement, we are to conceive that atoms, gases and 
molecules formed some kind of union by their action with- 
out coalescence, at first into solids, or even the liquid 
forms, but ultimately during the immence ages required by 
reactionary movement, formed luminous scattered masses 
of sufficient dimensions and so widely separated, as to con- 
stitute materials for systems of suns now occupying the im- 
measurable spaces. Some of the most interesting phenom- 
ena presented to the astronomer are various forms of 
nebulous or cloud-like masses, which, from terrestial points 
of observation, appear to be either spiral, ring-like, or 
nucleous formation, exhibiting, it is reasonably inferred, the 
successive stages of progress, and the apparent processes, 

* It is due to distinguished scientists, as Leibnitz, Whiston (successor 
to Sir I. Newton in the chair of Mathematics), and Buffon, to state, that 
each advanced fundamental ideas with respect to the original condition 
of matter and the general processes of world-formations, which contributed 
to prepare the way for the construction of the theory elaborated by 
Laplace. 



46 Science and Philosophy. 

in the order named in the generation of group and 
even cluster systems, by the breaking up of the ring-like 
forms, and by condensation into suns, and, ultimately, 
planets. 

Atomic matter still exists in vast portions of space, as 
manifested in the form of meteors, widely separated as in- 
dividual particles, but subject to the attraction of planets 
and probably of suns, by which they acquire a velocity of 
thirty or forty miles per second. 

The third stage was that of stellar formations. Our sun 
is one of the stars which differ vastly indeed in magnitude, 
and is an epitome of universal world-building. Originally, or 
in its earliest separate stage, it must have occupied space 
vastly exceeding the present limits of the most remote planet, 
even if one or two more exist outside of Neptune, which is 
probable. But so aggregated and condensed is the sun at 
the present point of its history as to be limited in dimen- 
sion to a diameter less than one million miles. The op- 
posite processes of aggregation and segregation result in 
both the comparative reduction of the diameter of the sun 
and the formation of the ring-like nebulous matter of 
which the several planets were formed. The author is in- 
clined to the theory that the nebular hypothesis should be 
so modified as to include the action of the repulsive force 
in throwing off the separate masses from the central body, 
as well as that of the attractive force, in condensation, thus 
leaving out of the sphere of the comparatively strong at- 
tractive force the nebulous rings which ultimately formed 
the planets. Other suns and systems probably have been 
subject to a corresponding process of change and develop- 
ment, resulting in varied dimensions, and in group and 
cluster forms having their centers ; for astronomers have 
verified the statement of Paul eighteen centuries ago, that 
"one star differeth from another in glory.-' 

The fourth stage was that of planetary formations by 
gradual condensation of the ring-like masses which were 
either thrown off the sun or left out in the distance. The 
geogony of our earth furnishes the facts which essentially 
obtain in respect to all planets, whether of our own solar 
system, or other stars far enough advanced to have gener- 
ated planets. Its primary stage was that of a ring, — its 
secondary stage was that of a nebulous, diffused, and thence 
a chaotic mass, of a spheroidal form. Prof. Dawson 
[Earth and Man] supposes the diameter of the nebulous 
matter of the earth, in its first or annular form, to have 



Pan- Dualism — Cosmic Matter and Force. 47 

been originally at least 15,000,000 miles, and that the atoms 
were at first kept apart by heat (repulsion), which opposed 
both their mechanical and chemical union. Condensation, 
however, followed, though after a vast period of gaseous 
condition. According to his theory, the denser matters 
gradually sank to the central region of the mass, and is now 
in a partially condensed stage, while a crust was formed by 
the condensation of the outer portion, nearly at its present 
diameter. Reactionary or volcanic movements still con- 
tinue, and may yet continue for a vast period. The strati- 
fications of the crust constitute the principal subject of 
Geology. 

We have seen that all cosmic matter is in motion, either 
visible or invisible, not only masses but molecules, and 
from the operations of nature it is inferred that these ele- 
ments have been in motion from the commencement of 
atomic existence. And this implies Force. Back of the 
motion of masses, back of the motion of atoms, was a cause 
or ohain of causation, beginning with a spiritual entity; 
for matter, as we have seen, is essentially inert, and cannot 
be the cause of its own motion. It can neither move itself, 
or cease its own motion. The possibility of a change 
of state lay in either an ab extra, or inherent Force. It 
is found, by repeated experiment, that cosmic matter is 
transmutable, and subject to laws of correlation and con- 
servation. The power that produces these changes must be 
either finite or infinite, or in some sense the result of both. 

Different hypotheses have been maintained of the nature 
of Force. The term itself is quite too often used without 
proper discrimination. The Duke of Argyle says [Reign 
of Law] : "It may be that this one Force, into which all 
others return again, is itself a mode of action of the Divine 
Will." Dr. McCosh says {Christianity and Positivism]: 
" The profoundest minds have been fond of regarding this 
Force as the Power of God acting in all action ; and we 
shall see this one Power blowing in the breeze, smiling in 
the sunshine, sparkling in the stars," etc. But these 
Christian theists do not intend to teach pantheism. They 
are to be understood, probably, to convey the meaning that 



48 Science and Philosophy. 

the Divine will is the immanent and efficient Force, though 
not immediate, operating by established relations and 
laws, or modes of action. They recognize the existence 
and the immediate action of physical Force as an entity 
distinct from matter. Rightly interpreted, there is a pro- 
found truth in these utterances, corresponding with those 
contained in the richly-freighted lines of Alex. Pope : 

" Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze, 
Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees; 
Lives through all life, extends through all extent, 
Spreads undivided, operates unspent; 
Breathes in our soul," * * * etc. 

Leibig held, that Nature is a living being, endowed with 
a soul or vital principle. This doctrine has been styled 
Hylozoism. Frequently by scientists, especially by materi- 
alists, the term energy is used in the sense of force : thus, 
" Energy is the power of doing work." " The sum of all 
the energies in all worlds is a quantity fixed, — invariable," 
— a form of defining the recent doctrine of the conserva- 
tion of Force. Helmholtz frequently uses the term energy 
for force, but in the following the term force is referred to 
as an effect, rather than cause: " Heat-force is produced 
by the excessive action of the ether." 

The term " energy," literally at work, or working, signi- 
fies either work done by some force, or the exertion, intens- 
ity, or efficiency of such force. Force, as used in this arti- 
cle, is the immaterial, or properly spiritual entity that 
originates or causes motion or change inherently in matter ; 
it is the power inherent in matter which produces, or tends 
to produce effects, and hence it is a cause, not an effect, 
nor indeed a condition of motion, except in a conventional 
sense, as applied to any of the forms or instruments of 
Force ; as mechanical, chemical, vital, or voluntary. We 
find the term used elsewhere [Enc} T c. Brit.] nearly as in 
this article: "Contemplated from the highest point of 
view, these physical phenomena may be conceived to re- 
sult from the operation of one primary form of Force, on 
one primordial form of Matter." 

Force actuates every state and form of matter. All the 



Pan- Dualism — Cosmic Matter and Force. 49 

phenomena of nature, from the atom to the globe, from 
the chemical compound to the universal system, result 
from one or more forms of Force inhering in all. Every 
change and every process in cosmic nature implies the ne- 
cessity of a corresponding Force. The law of gravitation, 
that "bodies attract each other directly as the masses, and 
inversely as the squares of their distance," assumes this, if, 
as held, matter is essentially passive. Matter and Force are 
so adjusted by their constitution that the quantity of one 
is the measure of the quantity of the other ; hence, if the 
aggregate of atoms constituting a body can be determined, the 
quantity of Force by which such body acts will be expressed 
by such aggregation, and vice versa. Force is held to be 
self-active in the sense of being constituted for definite ac- 
tion ; the change of position of a body, is the result of an 
act either propelling or attractive. 

The forms of dynamic action are various, but fixed in 
their own order. Ethereal action reveals a power inhering 
in this primary material element adequate to bear onward 
and onward, with inconceivable velocity, to the very verge 
of creation, — distances the finite mind, at least in the pres- 
ent state, fails to appreciate, — a succession of wave- vibra- 
tions which leave the impress of their character unaltered 
upon objects at the immeasurably distant points of space. 
We infer, therefore, that Force pervades the entire ethereal 
element ; and it should be so, for ether is diffused in the 
inter-molecular spaces, and for the propagation of the wave- 
motion an equally pervading Force is requisite. Molecular 
and massal action result from the same Force inhering in 
the atoms, the molecular spaces and inter-massal spaces, 
as one inseparable or indivisible entity, acting by its 
own nature in the material conditions which limit its 
action. We trace this spirital entity in the changes effected 
in matter under the forms of physical, mechanical and 
chemical action. We see evidences of its existence in the 
form of heat or the repulsive action, which as really as 
attraction has its laws, — in the transmutation of solids, 
liquids and gases, in volcanic action, in the rose-red pro- 
4 



50 Science and Philosophy. 

tuberances of the solar photosphere, and in the boiling and 
seething chaotic masses in the processes of world-forma- 
tions. Matter, in all its forms and states, is the vehicle and 
instrument of the all-inherent, co-existent and co-etaneous 
Force. 

We need not accept the doctrine of Des Cartes, that 
extension is the only property of matter, but may regard 
inertia as the form of Force, which continues the motion it 
gives to a body, and which also maintains the equilibrium 
of bodies by its potentiality. It is sufficiently evident that 
the agency of this force was concerned as the instrumental 
cause in the evolution of all the states of Matter, and in 
the conservation of all its forms of action ; and that matter, 
in every stage of development, has constituted the vehicle 
and means of manifesting the diversified forms of the in- 
herent and self-active Force. The doctrine, therefore, of 
the dual nature of cosmic being, of the self-subsistence and 
co-existence of Matter and Force, is substantiated by the 
highest scientific considerations. 

3. Vegetal Organisms and Self-directive Life. 

In the ascending series of the creative works, when the 
principle of activity in the chemical form of Force had 
built up the cosmic forms and conditions, a higher order 
was introduced, the Divine fiat, Let there be Life, having 
been virtually uttered upon the prior nature. What, in 
the former stage, was but the self-active Force, now, by the 
Divine Power in the communication of a new and special 
element or attribute, becomes a self ■ directive Life. In all 
the progress of the generations of existence, when a lower 
order had fulfilled its ends preparatory to the introduction 
of a higher, there has been added a " life unto life," a con- 
servation of the lower forces and material properties to a 
higher form and sphere of existence. Here, as elsewhere 
in this article, the term "order" is used in its radical 
sense to distinguish beings with reference to their dynamic 
characteristics, — as force, life, instinct, and mind, — and not 
with reference to the anatomical distinctions upon which 
are based the classifications of Natural History as found 
in text-books. 

The mystery of Life has in all ages been a subject of 
special interest and study. The question, What is Life? 
relates to a reality deeper than phenomena or organization. 
This real entity is itself a cause or essential agent in the 
production of phenomena possessing a capacity higher than 



Pan- Dualism — Vegetal Life. 51 

mere Force. Its seat is in the region which is inaccessible 
to human view, and is known only by its manifestations. 
Some regard it merely as a consequent of certain condi- 
tions, and not as itself a real entity and a cause of phenom- 
ena. This is the materialistic view. Others, while often 
using the term life in the sense of a process, regard it as a 
distinct form of power acting in and through vital organ- 
isms. / Pres. McCosh says he is "inclined, on the evidence 
of science, to believe in a vital power as different from the 
chemical as the chemical is from the mechanical." But 
the author has failed to observe in the doctor's works a 
statement of the nature of that power. Argyle says : 
" Life is the antecedent cause of organization, and not the 
organization itself." 

So also the question pertaining to the origin of Life has 
baffled many a philosopher. Some attribute it to the sun. 
And it is true that the phenomena called life upon the 
earth, as manifested to us by the changes wrought in matter, 
is largely due to the agency of the sun, inasmuch as an 
organism depends for its nurture and growth upon heat, 
light, and the actinic rays which originate from the solar 
activities. 

"All the realities of nature are in the region of the in- 
visible." The authors of "The Unseen Universe" main- 
tain the hypothesis that there is in the invisible realms 
" an intelligent Agent whose function it is to develop Life." 
Prof. Taylor Lewis says [Six Days of Creation] : "Vegetal 
life had a moment when it began to be, — a new, and at 
first a super-natural force put into Nature. " Interpreting 
the passage in Genesis, "Let the earth bring forth grass," 
to mean, Let the earth germinate or cause to germinate, 
adds, "The command was to the earth, which was not a 
mere passive recipient, but exerted a real causative power. " 
"The divine power was exerted, but it was upon and 
through the nature previously existing ; while here was 
the beginning of a new energy imparted to nature which 
it did not possess before." 

It is not the purpose of the author to treat of the physi- 
ology of plants with reference to organism, concerning 
which no disagreement is presumed, but to present consid- 
erations concerning the doctrine of Life / that there is a 
real spirit essence inhering in the physical organism which 
is the self-directive agency in building it up ; that all the 
processes of vegetal development relate to, and depend 
upon, the action of this agent in reference alike to its typi- 
cal form and the germination of the plant, and to the 



52 Science and Philosophy. 

assimilation of the nutritive elements through the circula- 
tory organs, or that the self- directive spirit of the plant 
appropriates its nutriment through the organized channels, 
giving the functional capacity to its organs. 

Nothing is more evident than the almost infinite forms 
and variety of life in the vegetal realm, which in spring- 
time seem to awaken from their apparently latent state ; it 
is a fact of universal observation and admiration, eliciting 
innumerous efforts to portray, in prose and poetry, the 
charming scenes. And the phenomena in every age has 
suggested the thought, that there must be a living power 
beneath the development, exerting an immediate agency. 
Mythology has invested this power with the attributes of 
a diety, while Christian Theism has attributed the results 
contemplated either to the direct agency of the Infinite 
Spirit, or to a constituted vital subsistence inhering in the 
organism as its living soul, as really as the human spirit is 
the self-active force in the material body. The author 
maintains the latter view. 

The spirit of nature, which was hitherto its actuating 
force, co-existing with cosmic or inorganic matter, was 
brought forward in essence and constituted a self-directive 
but unconscious Life in organic matter. The Divine oin- 
nific Word, which seems to have uttered its mandate upon 
the self-active Force in nature, "Let the earth bring forth 
grass," etc., actuated or gave efficiency, or properly, anew 
attribute to the finite Force, resulting in the introduction 
of a new and advanced order of existence. As there had 
been a nature in the earth, acting as a real dynamic agency 
of its own, acting in a dynamic system of activities, so this 
nature, in some sense, was endowed with a capacity for di- 
recting processes of its own, and thus bearing a finite part 
as the agency in bringing about a new and superior order, 
to which the lower should be subordinated for the higher 
ends of existence. Thence forward there existed not only 
a self-subsisting and self-active Force, but a self-directive 
Life. In spiritual nature, as really as in material, there is 
continuity, — the successive orders of the spiritual nature 
being essentially the same kind of substance. 

The vegetal order appropriates the lower elements and 
forms of Force to the special ends to be subserved in 
the higher orders of being. This principle of progression, 
upon which the preceding forms of existence contribute 
elements which enter into the higher, has often been an- 
nounced by Christian philosophers. Dr. John Harris 
[Man Primeval] expresses it in these words : "All the laws 



Pan-Dualism — Vegetal Life. 53 

and results of the preceding stages of creation will be found 
to be brought forward into the higher economy ; and all 
that is characteristic of these lower steps of the process 
will be carried up into the higher, as far as it may sub- 
serve the great end, or unless it shall be superseded by 
something analogous in the higher stages." Pres. Hopkins 
[Outlines of Man] has elaborated and illustrated the same 
thought. 

The order of creation and development is both progress- 
ive and continuous. Types and characteristics in the 
lower are incorporated in the higher. The law of continu- 
ity, in essential respects, must be recognized as applicable 
to all matter and spirit. It is the same primordial spirit 
essence, and the same primordial ethereal essence out of 
which the successive orders of finite existences have been 
derived, yet possessing new attributes and qualities not 
previously brought out by the All-efficient Source of uni- 
versal being. ISTo new material essence has been created 
which did not exist essentially in the primary ethereal state, 
and nothing fundamental to this nature will be annihilated, 
No new spiritual essence has been created which did not 
exist potentially in the primordial Force. And when the 
cycle of mundane existence shall have been completed, the 
physical organism will be dissolved, and both the form of 
cosmic matter and its related life will return to their prim- 
ary state in the illimitable ocean of finite being. 

Every organic order of being, at least, has been antici- 
pated by one or more types of a previous order. So bound 
together, so related, are all orders, that there are found in 
vital and even cosmic nature features and characteristics 
which anticipate the higher forms, even of the human organ- 
ism. Theories of typical natures may indeed be carried 
too far. An English writer has advanced the hypothesis 
that " The earth, indeed the entire universe, obeys the laws 
and possesses the functions of organic life, as exhibited in 
expansibility, contractibility, circulation, and spiral rota- 
tion." Yet there are correspondences of the lower to the 
higher natures. There are modes of action in cosmic 
nature which have their counterparts in the higher biologi- 
cal and mental natures. There are adaptations of instinct- 
ive action in seeking protection and happiness, which are 
anticipations of the higher rational action in seeking the 
good and avoiding the evil, in an ethical and religious view. 
But illustrations will here be omitted. 

The spirit or life of a plant is as real an entity as its 
nicely adapted material organism. Indeed, an organism 



54 Science and Philosophy. 

cannot exist, except in a mere form of stratification or con- 
gelation, without the Life which preserves its form and 
vitality. The seed, the germ, the protoplasm, is preserved 
in its form, because of the living power co-existing with, 
and inhering in the passive, material nature. Nor can a 
real organism be constructed in the chemical laboratory. 
The scientist, whom we honor as a benefactor while in his 
legitimate field of research and achievement in discovering 
the facts and laws of nature, can neither construct an or- 
ganism, such as may be found in the living' being, nor, if 
he could, can he impart the life force necessary to perform 
the function of an organ. The functions of life are as 
much higher than those of cosmic force, as the latter is 
broader in its sphere of operations than the former. 

Life may cease to manifest its activity, and remain, in 
peculiarly favorable circumstances, in its latent, or simply 
potential state, as in the recorded cases of grains of wheat 
preserved for thousands of years in the catacombs of 
Egypt. The same is true of animal natures, as toads. But 
when the " vital spark" is separated from the organic, the 
organism dissolves and the elements return to their cosmic 
state. 

4. Animal Organisms and Instinct. 

Few will question the existence of a dual nature in the 
constitution of the animal. The theory here maintained 
includes the hypothesis of the identity of essence, onto- 
logically considered, though modified in respect to attri- 
butes of primary force, life, instinct, and mind, — all pos- 
sessing the primary qualities of the spirit nature, viz., in- 
divisibility and self-subsistence, to which are added, in the 
advanced stages, respectively, the attributes of self-activity, 
unconscious self-direction, constituting life, and conscious 
self-direction, pertaining to animal life or instinct. 

The introduction of Animal Life upon the globe was 
preceded by the Divine utterance, "Let the earth bring 
forth the living creature after his kind, cattle and creeping 
thing, and beast of the earth, and it was so. And God 
made the beast of the earth," etc. This passage teaches 
several truths : the Divine purpose to introduce a new 
order ; the agency of the spirit of Nature, or the creature ; 
and the agency of the Creator. The facts of a co-agency 
of the Infinite and the finite has obtained in all the pro- 
cesses of creation, both natural life and the moral or spir- 
itual life. Paul teaches the principle, in respect to the 
latter, in the following: " Work out your own salvation, 



Pan- Dualism — Animal Life. 55 

for God worketh in you." " We, as workers together with 
Him." There is also indicated in the statement in Genesis 
the fact, that in all orders preceding the human, the primal 
nature is the finite source and agency of their origination, 
the term earth representing this nature both as to the ma- 
terial and spiritual entity. This is the import of the com- 
mand, Let the earth bring forth vegetal and animal life ; 
whereas the formula used upon the introduction of the 
human order was changed, — the significance of which will 
be noticed onward. There is no absurdity in the view 
"That there is a plastic or formative power which had 
been put into the earth " [Prof. Lewis]. Cosmic being hav- 
ing a finite origin, is in a sense destined to complete a cycle 
of actual existence and return to Nature. In the animate 
order, the physiological organisms, especially in the higher 
grades, are vastly more complex than in the vegetal, while 
the vital principle possesses correspondingly increased capac- 
ities as is adapted to stages higher than the simple life of 
the plant. This inhering spirit of nature now possesses a 
conscious capacity, as well as self-subsisting, self-active, self- 
directive and sentient instinct. The functions of the ani- 
mal constitution are of two kinds, physiological and sentient, 
the latter being superadded to the former, while the mere 
vital capacities, i. <?., those which are peculiar to vegetal 
life, are modified in certain respects in accordance with the 
new demands of the animal economy. Properly viewed, 
the animal spirit nature is not two-fold, but one essence 
with a two-fold capacity or power of self-direction, uncon- 
scious and conscious, having as the subject end of its being 
self-preservation and propagation. 

It is not conceived that what is peculiar to the new order 
is an immediate development from the preceding, but may 
be properly considered a development in the sense that the 
characteristics or typical forms and capacities subsisting in 
the primal nature are incorporated with the super-added 
qualities and characteristics, forming the basis of the ad- 
vanced order. But that which is peculiar and special for 
the higher functions and uses, originated or were crea- 
tions, in some sense, out of the common sphere of 
primeval existence ; or it may have been out of the Divine 
Nature. 

"All animal life originates from the egg" [Agassiz]. 
The ovarian cluster of cells in which the egg grows has the 
same relation to the animal that seed has to the plant. 
The structures are similar, and the nutriment or means of 
growth from the same sources. Hence the appropriateness 



56 Science and Philosophy. 

of including the two classes of being as pertaining to the 
same common and radical term Biology. 

Conchology furnishes numerous examples of a life-force 
inhering in a constitution without organs, without visible 
structure of any kind save a jelly-like mass, living without 
perceptible air or light, yet building up in the deep sea 
shells of the most exquisite forms, by a power within cor- 
responding in function to that of assimilation in the higher 
species ; such, for example, is the foraminifera. Prof. 
Dawson describes another variety, and the oldest known, 
whose fossil he discovered in 1865, in the Laurentian strata 
in Canada, and which he named Eozoon Canadense. 
"These animals," says Dawson, "presuppose the exist- 
ence of plants, such as sea-weeds, upon which they 
could feed." They still abide in the deep sea, as did 
their ancestors of immeasurable periods past. What an 
ancestry they can claim ! The organism of such animals 
is extremely primary and simple, yet the evidence of such 
animate forms of being is revealed by the miscroscope. 

The difficulty of distinguishing between some of the higher 
forms of vegetal life and the lower forms of animal life, con- 
contributes to contirm the doctrine of a spirit entity in plants, 
called Life. There are plants which possess characteristics 
which seem so allied to low species of animals, that some 
naturalists have classified them as animals, as the Insectifer- 
ous plants, which move about spontaneously, asif they pos- 
sessed instinct. The Droseras (sun-dews) are constructed 
with a kind of trap-leaf, armed with hair-like substances cor- 
responding with the feelers of insects, which are open till its 
prey has been enfolded, when it extracts the vitality of the 
insect. The Diatomacse, a kind of animal vegetable, is said 
to possess powers of motion, sometimes forward, then back- 
ward, or in a zigzag course, having apparently the capacity 
of self-direction, which seems to require their classification 
with animals. Yet the writer of the article " Diatomacav' 
in British Encyclopedia, says: "While their extraordinary 
motion excites admiration, it must be acknowledged that 
the mechanical agency which produces the motion remains 
unexplained." This difficulty of distinction is further 
illustrated in the case of Zoosperes, which swim about for 
a time on the surface of water, then become stationary 
and grow like a plant. Whether such beings are plants or 
animals, it is left for further examination by naturalists. 
The examples show, at least, that the spirit entity we call 
Life exists in plants, though some may regard it in the 
lower grades as simple force ; while others, as Sawyer 



Pan- Dualism — Animal Life. 57 

[Mental Philosophy], have held, that " Plants possess 
Minds." 

Millions of animalculse may be collected in a cluster, 
which the unassisted eye cannot see. All nature is indeed 
teeming with infusorial life, and the perfection of form of 
these, many millions of which are contained in a cubic 
inch, show the innumerous types in the realms of nature. 
It is the conviction of some geologists that there has 
existed such a boundlessness of being in the myriad ages 
of the earth's history, that " not a strata or a rock can be 
found which has not constituted a theater of life." 

All organized forms of being are subject to decay. 
Death is an essential process of a system of life, and is 
not, as sometimes taught in reference to irrational beings, 
the result of human apostasy. It was a fact of the history 
of terrestial life myriads of years before man was intro- 
duced upon the stage. The abnormal, physical and moral 
state of man, or the mode of disease and death by a pro- 
cess of decay, was no doubt the result of the perversion of 
his moral nature by which the molecular changes in our 
constitution cause degeneracy and dissolution. The 
Divine appointment succeeded the "Fall." Heb. 9: 27. 
How long man might have lived and yet be destined to a 
change from the cosmic to the ethereal state, is a question 
which need not here be considered. But in reference to the 
lower orders, belonging only to the cosmic state, their 
organic, physical nature as that of man, it is truthfully stated 
by Solomon in the Scriptures : " All go to one place ; one 
thing befalleth the beast and the sons of men ;" all return 
to their original elements, — u all are of the dust, and all 
turn to dust again. " " The spirit of the beast goeth down- 
ward," i. e., returns to the primal spirit nature, while " the 
spirit of man goeth upward," — his whole psychical nature 
being destined to immortality. Eccl. 3d ch. 

5. The Human Soul, ok Psychical Constitution. 

The last act of the creation of the terrestial orders, the 
crowning work of the creative days, was that of con- 
stituting the human nature. The series is now completed, 
and Man stands forth the last and noblest of the orders, 
the epitome of all that have preceded, — the limit and per- 
fection of organic nature, — the highest in dignity and 
honor. 

It has been said that "Man is a microcosm, — a little 
world." He takes up into his constitution for the cosmic 



58 Science and Philosophy. 

state the essential elements of all that preceded him. All 
the distinguishing qualities and characteristics of the vege- 
tal and animal orders, and even of cosmic and ethereal 
nature, in the widest generality, are virtually brought for- 
ward and conserved in the human system ; and, therefore, 
Man was anticipated in all preceding natures, existing in 
its types, qualities and potentialities for measureless periods 
before he "became a living soul." 

From the mount of rational vision he may now look back 
upon all the past series of existences, and trace the success- 
ive generations from the original state prior to the com- 
mencement of the present cosmic state, and hear the Ora- 
nific Word virtually uttered upon the primeval, latent spirit 
of the ethereal realm, Let there be activity ; and thence suc- 
cessively upon the introduction of every special order and 
agency, " Let there be Light, " ' ' Let there be a Firmament, " 
" Let the earth bring forth vegetal Life," "Let the waters 
and the earth bring animal Life," and, finally, contemplate 
the most significant utterance pertaining to all the terrestrial 
orders, — as if consulting a co-ordinate divinity, at least one 
in most intimate relations, in reference to the creation of 
an order not only transcending all others in capacities fur 
occupying and conserving the newly-fitted up world to the 
highest purposes, but who should also "partake of the 
Divine nature," and thus be fitted for the realm of super- 
mundane existence. " Let us make man after our likeness, 
and in our image, and let him have dominion over all the 
earth." And thus there is consummated the most dignified 
work of terrestrial nature, the end and sum of all former 
orders of the present cosmic system, as we may suppose 
the angelic orders were successively the chief and crowning 
orders of former cosmoses. 

It is reasonable to infer that such a being should be not 
only the completion of all the types and results of all the 
preceding orders, the "chief end" of their existence, but 
that its essential and highest form of material nature should 
be of a substance as non-transmutable and imperishable as 
the primeval element of the universe ; and that hence in 
the completion of his cycle, whether in an organic or super- 
organic state, he should be fitted, by the possession of this 
high nature, for immortality. And if faith in the Script- 
ures is valid, as based upon substantial testimony, such 
an imperishable, material nature as the vehicle and instru- 
ment of the rational ever-progressive spiritual nature, is 
abundantly assured. Thence, also, man's high rank, his 
vast superiority over all subordinate orders, is seen in what 



Pan-Dualism — Psychology. 59 

he is, — a subjective end in himself, as well as in what he 
has capacity to do, promotive of the honor of the infinitely 
wise and benevolent Creator. 

The diverse and opposing theories which have been held 
by metaphysicians, of the essential nature, constitution and 
functions of mind, show the difficulty of solving the prob- 
lem pertaining to mental action. These cannot here be 
noticed. But any theory which regards the mind as an 
entity which can act independently of a co-existing material 
substance, as most theories do, fail alike to account for the 
cause of mental action, for sensations, thought, the affec- 
tions, and volition. Most persons believe, upon the testi- 
mony of the consciousness, that the human constitution 
consists of two substances, — a visible body and an invisible 
mind, and hence no argument is proposed to establish this 
common view. But the aim of the author is to present con- 
firmation, both from the Scriptures and Philosophy, of the 
theory which may be stated in the following terms : That 
there exists in essential connection with the cosmic or phys- 
ical body an invisible substance which now forms a part 
of the constitution of the body, forming both the basis and 
medium both of physiological and psychological action ; 
that this substance, which may be regarded as the future 
imperishable body in its insipient stage, is con-natural with 
the general ether which fills all space, being a specialized 
form of it, and possessing its fundamental properties, to 
which are added such as are essential to a permanently 
continuous being, such vehicle becoming fully developed 
when the cosmic body, as a "tabernacle," shall dissolve, 
or be "put off;" and that this vehicle performs an impor- 
tant agency in the bodily constitution, having its centers of 
manifestation corresponding with the centers of vital and 
mental action. 

The apostle Paul, 1 Cor., fifteenth chapter, calls this 
substance, in its completed stage, "a spiritual body." 
"There is a natural [psuchikon] body, and there is a 
spiritual [pneumatikon] body. " " That was not first which 
is spiritual, but that which is natural." The last passage 
quoted is a philosophical statement of the order of develop- 
ment from the lower to the higher, from the incomplete to 
the complete. The physical or cosmical body, which dies, 
its elements returning to the earth, is succeeded by one of 
an imperishable nature. In the former passage, the con- 
trast relates to these two orders of body in possession, or 
in which the one mind or spirit inheres in the successive 
stages of existence. If Paul used the word pneumatikon 



60 Science and Philosophy. 

from pneuma, spirit, to express the idea that the future 
body is like spirit in some respects ; or, if he intended to 
express the contrast of a rational mind with animal mind ; 
or, further, the contrast of moral states, as unregenerate 
and- regenerate (1 Cor. 2 : 14), the substance of the future 
body he calls "spiritual" remains unexplained, and we are 
left to the teachings of rational philosophy. If, however, 
he uses the term with reference to its kind of substance, it 
is in accordance with the usage of some philosophers of his 
time. Says the writer of the article "Soul," in " Cham- 
ber's Encyclopedia:" "The Stoic dualists used the term 
pneuma to describe the fine ethereal nature of the material 
soul." 

The word psuchikon is used in the lSTew Testament only 
by Paul, in 1 Cor. 2 : 4, and in the 15th chapter; by James 
and Jude. It is derived from psuche, soul, and used by 
Paul with reference to one of its primary senses, viz., ani- 
mal life. Compare Matt. 16:26: "What shall a man 
give in exchange for his life?" In the second chapter of 
the epistle quoted, it is interpreted to signify sensual, re- 
ferring to "those who are governed and influenced by the 
natural instincts, animal passions and desires." [Barnes.] 
The author of this article uses the term psuchikon in a 
sense corresponding with the modern signification of the 
word soul, and also, as will be seen, in the sense common 
to Greek usage. As applied to the future body, the com- 
pound ether io'psychical expresses the conception appropri-. 
ately : ethereal as to origin or nature, and psychical as to 
relation, the word soul being considered either as the spirit 
or rational nature, usually called mind, or the dual nature 
of the future being, material and spiritual, which survives 
the physical body. For the sake of brevity the simple term 
psychical is commonly used in this work. 

Ancient Greek use of Psuche. 

Frequent examples are found of the use of this word, 
from the earliest period of Greek Literature to the medie- 
val period. While, indeed, we find diversity of application 
by Greek writers, the word was commonly used to signify 
the immortal nature of man, the conception including a 
formal, as well as spiritual or rational nature ; sometimes 
the abstract notion of soul or spirit was intended. But the 
radical idea was most frequently used in references to the 
soul, viz., that of & formal, though intangible nature, hav- 
ing a temporary connection with the physical body, but it 



Pan- Dualism — Psychology. 61 

was the imperishable vehicle with which the rational mind 
is connected in the different states of being. Homer, about 
the year 900 B. C, the earliest of the Greek writers whose 
works are extant, refers to the soul as leaving the body, 
yet preserving its form, but which might not be seized by 
mortal hands. [Od. 2: 207.] In his Iliad, recounting the 
noble achievements of the heroes who fell before Troy, he 
states that, " Their souls were despatched to Hades (the 
invisible world), while their bodies were given to the dogs." 
Plato [Gorgias], interpreting certain teachings of his mas- 
ter, Socrates, represents him as saying substantially : 
When a man is stripped of his body, all the affections of 
the soul are laid open to view; perhaps the soul is marked 
with the whip \ perhaps the wrongs he has committed have 
been plastered upon him, and he (the soul) is all crooked 
with falsehood, or deformed by luxury ; when he is dis- 
patched to his prison, and there he undergoes the punish- 
ment which he deserves." Philo, the forerunner of the 
Neo-Platonists, seems to have distinguished the spirit 
nature or mind as the active agent of the soul, an idea 
expressed in the phrase he uses, "the soul of the soul." 
Herodotus, and later, Xenophon, and others, used the word 
psuche and its derivatives to designate the invisible nature 
which inheres in the visible body. 

.New. Testament Use of the Term Psuche. 

The following passages may be referred to as examples 
of the use of this term, as involving the entire invisible and 
imperishable nature, corresponding with the Greek use 
above quoted : Acts 2: 27, 31, Christ's "soul was not left 
in hell, — Sheol [Heb.], Hades [Gr.] — the invisible world. 
Matt. 10 : 28, Fear not them which kill the body, but are 
not able to kill the soul ; Lu. 12 : 20, This night thy soul 
shall be required of thee; James 5 : 20, — shall save a soul 
from death. Compare Heb. 13: 17; Jam. 1: 21; lPet.4: 19. 

The following refer to the form of persons in the immor- 
tal state : Kev. 6 : 9, I saw under the altar the souls of 
them that were slain. See, also, 20 : 4. Rev. Dr. Barnes, 
commenting upon these passages, says : " These scenes 
should be regarded as undoubtedly laid in heaven, the tem- 
ple where God resides." Such, at least, are glimpses of 
the glorious realities of a material as well as spiritual state. 

The following passage is thought by some to distinguish 
the nature of man as three-fold, — a trichotomy: 1 Thes. 
5 : 23, "I pray God your whole spirit and soul and body 



62 Science and Philosophy. 

may be preserved blameless." It is not certain that Paul 
intended to state this three-fold division as an onotological 
distinction. Pres. Hopkins [Outlines of Man] and others 
hold, that the term spirit signifies the rational substance, 
and soul the seat of the mind and affections. The term 
spirit may in the above passage signify the disposition, or 
the sanctified moral nature, Rom. 7:6; 2 Tim. 1 : 7, 
while the term soul includes the whole imperishable being. 
" It is hard to say whether the Christian writers conceived 
of a trifold existence, or whether they conceived the soul 
to be merged in one or the other extreme elements, viz., 
the coarse material body, or the finely attenuated material 
spirit, generally the latter was held." [Chamber's Encyc. 
Soul.] 

The presence of Moses and Elias at the time of Christ's 
transfiguration, recognized by the favored disciples, con- 
firms the view that these representatives of the former dis- 
pensations possessed their immortal bodies. It does not 
appear how the disciples were made acquainted with the 
fact that these were the veritable prophets of old, unless 
revealed by their conversation. Lu. 9: 30, "They ap- 
peared in glory." Says Barnes, " an appearance like that 
which the saints have in heaven." Plainly it was an exhi- 
bition of their glorious bodies, for spirit is not seen. 
These prophets came on an unusual mission, and the fact 
of their being permitted to return to earth pre-suppoaes 
formal bodies, — the appropriate vehicles of their rational 
nature, and indicating the exalted state of " the saints in 
light." . 

Anticipations and the Resurrection. 

When upon the cross Christ assured the penitent thief 
that " This day shalt thou be with me in paradise," he left 
this impression upon the mind of those who heard him that 
both himself and the penitent malefactor, in their complete 
personality, and with all their essential attributes and func- 
tions, should be in the celestial state and "in heavenly 
places," when their bodies should die and be laid in the 
grave. The invisible psychical body, in these and other 
cases, "came forth" from the physical in their coherency 
and completeness, and would appear as Moses and Elias did 
in their glory if they were to return visibly. 

Paul and Peter speak of "putting off this tabernacle," 
the body, by which is clearly meant the visible body, con- 
sidered as a temporary dwelling, that the spirit might "be 
clothed upon" simply with their celestial body, unclogged 



Pan-Dualism — Psychology. 63 

by the terrestrial. Paul not only desired but was assured 
that he should be still in possession of a body unlike 
the perishable, that the spirit should not be naked or 
bodiless, but clothed or invested with the imperishable 
body, which should be a vehicle appropriate for celestial 
associations. The soul's emergence from the mortal or 
molecular body was to be the signal that the corruptible 
was no longer needed, for the incorruptible supersedes the 
decaying. And this is the expectation of the believer in 
the Scripture teachings, that this glorious, imperishable 
vehicle will alone answer all the purposes of immortal 
existence. When a Batrachian is translated from one class 
of Mammalia to another, as from the fish to the reptile, or 
when a worm is developed into an insect, in the form of a 
butterfly, it does not lose its essential identity, though it 
changes its form and habits. It ma}^ be observed that the 
Greek name applied to the butterfly, was jpsuche, probably 
on account of its emergence from a former state, corre- 
sponding somewhat to the emergence of the human soul 
from the condition likened unto a "worm" [Job and 
David]. So, too, Man does not lose his essential identity 
in respect to his material nature, any more than his spirit- 
ual, by being translated from the cosmic to the super cos- 
mic realm ; the being is the same essentially in the ad- 
vanced state though differing in respect to state of mat- 
ter, aspects and relations. There is no break of continuity. 
And this investiture, the author holds, takes place at 
death by the full development and completion of the psy- 
chical body. He has no s} 7 mpathy with the doctrine that at 
the last day the scattered portions of the body " shall come 
flying together" from distant portions of the earth and sea, 
after thousands of years, in many instances, as if the state- 
ment in Isa. 26 : 19, "Thy dead men shall live, together 
with my dead body shall they arise," should be inter- 
preted literally, " God is not the God of the dead, but of 
the living." Who now believes that the preposterous 
lines of Dr. Young, herewith quoted, express the truths 
connected with the Second Advent ? — 

" Now monuments prove faithful to their trust, 
And render back their long committed dust; 
Now charnels rattle, scattered limbs and all 
The various bones, obsequious to the call, 
Self- move, advance; the neck, perhaps, to meet 
The distant head ; the distant leg the feet. 
Dreadful to view! see, through the dusky sky, 
Fragments of bodies in confusion fly; 
To distant regions journeying, there to claim 
Deserted members, and complete the frame!" 



64 Science and Philosophy. 

Some have inferred from Rom. 8 : 11, that the identical 
physical organism shall be "quickened." Some have in- 
ferred from 1 Thes. 4 : 14-16, that the dead shall awake 
from their sleep. Some have inferred from 1 Cor. 15 : 
36-45, that the dead shall spring up as a plant, offspring 
or production from the old decayed body. The author 
does not accept any of these interpretations. Job, 14th 
chapter, no doubt expresses the literal fact of the case : 
"There is hope of a tree, if it be cut down, that it will 
sprout again. But man dieth and wasteth away, — Man 
lieth down and riseth not ; till the heavens be no more, 
they shall not awake, nor be raised out of their sleep." 
"That is," says Barnes, "never; for this is the obvious 
meaning of the passage." 

The author maintains that the body that " comes forth" 
at the future Advent of the Messiah, is the same with which 
the spirit is closed at death. A general phenomenal Res- 
urrection is taught as connected with the general 
Judgment. In what that will consist otherwise than 
a reappearing upon the earth, which, to those who 
shall be alive, will be a coming forth from the invisible 
world, it cannot be determined. The last that we see, or 
is known of man, is the fact of his being consigned to the 
tomb. As a physical personality he dissolves; i. e., the visi- 
ble body, composed of cosmic matter or atoms, changes, dis- 
solves, and returns "earth to earth." When the affairs of 
earth shall be closed " at the last day" for the final adjudi- 
cation, at the call of the archangel's trumpet, the dead, 
i. e., those whose bodies shall have died, will appear to 
the living, and the living will be " changed." 

" If there be any consolation" in the assurance of an 
immortal and glorious future succeeding the unsatisfying 
experiences of this life, such consolation cannot be in- 
creased, but lessened, by the prospect of an indefinitely long 
period of sleep before coming into the full fruition of the 
soul in the celestial realms, — in our Father's house of 
"many mansions." 

Pertaining, therefore, to the present subject of discus- 
sion, the Scriptures teach directly, or by valid inference and 
consistent interpretation, the following : 

1. That we are constituted a two-fold nature, or being, 
material and spiritual. Gen. 1 : 27 ; 2 : 7. 

2. That we are the same beings essentially in the pres- 
ent and future states, except that the outer, physical or 
molecular body is "put off." Lu. 16: 22. 

3. That we pass at death into the future state in the 



Pan- Dualism — Psychology. 65 

immediate possession of our imperishable bodily vehicle. 
2 Cor. 5 : 1. 

4. That for accountabilit}', continuity and identity per- 
tain to both the material and the spiritual nature. 2 Cor. 
5: 10. 

The Philosophy of Physiology and Psychology. 

Both mind and its psychical mechanism belong to the 
realm of the unseen, and are known "only in part." We 
infer the existence of a psychical nature as we infer the 
existence of the Divine nature, from its manifestations, 
and because we cannot account for certain phenomena 
without recognizing such existence. Varied, and often 
quite opposite hypotheses have been held, pertaining to the 
nature of mind, and its connection with the body. So 
intimately connected are these entities that some philos- 
ophers, as Prof. Bain, maintain that they are identical. 
But most philosophers, except materialists, hold that they 
are distinct entities, whose mode of connection is "greatly 
in the dark" [Dr. Cheever] ; or "an impenetrable mys- 
tery" [Thompson's Theism] ; or "as insoluble in its mod- 
ern form as it was in the pre-seientific pages" [Prof. Tyn- 
dall]. Pres. McCosh says : "Man does not seem to be 
connected with rude matter, — with the molecules of matter, 
but with the forces in matter, with the correlated matter." 
This explains as far as it goes. Correlation, however, is a 
physical result of an order of adjustment by some force or 
forces lying back, and is a condition of finite action. 
Leibnitz supposed "there exists a subtle body inseparably 
connected with the soul which may be called the corpus 
organicum, the essential instrument of the mind, through 
which intercourse is held with the visible world." This 
conception corresponds well with the theory maintained in 
this work, that the connection of mind with the physical, 
molecular or correlated matter is only mediate ; that the 
psychical or ethereal substance, including what is known 
as "nervous ether," upon which the physical may be said 
to be super-imposed on the cosmic side, constitutes the 
immediately connecting link between the mind and the 
body, forming the basis, not only of vital action and iden- 
tity, but of sensation, perception and memory, and hence 
the connection of body and mind is not immediate, but 
only mediate. 

The hypothesis of a psychical structure seems alone suf- 
ficient to account for the mysteries pertaining to the life, 
5 



66 Science and Philosophy. 

growth and form of the physical organism. Every physi- 
ologist encounters difficulties when attempting to explain 
the rationale of those processes which are going on in the 
various systems of action in our wonderful constitution, and 
which are so automatic and instinctive as to be beyond the 
province of observation, save in their results. Hence there 
are not a few "unsettled questions" pertaining to these 
processes which are not satisfactorily answered by the usual 
empirical methods, and which seem to depend upon an 
order of dynamics peculiar to an imperishable structure, 
possessing a subtle nature of ethereal origin, and the per- 
manent basis of the continuity of the physical organism. 
Thus, what constitutes the invisible type upon which are 
built the several organic systems ? What constitutes the 
hidden mechanism of those systems which act by an auto- 
matic force which no chemistry can explain, and upon 
which continuance of life depends ? What is the nature of 
that unvarying order of conveying nutriment through the 
constituted channels, so that the several organs shall re- 
ceive and assimilate from the complex blood the specific 
molecular constituents necessary to build up and preserve 
the wasting framework of our system ; the albuminous 
molecules which repair and perpetuate the muscular fibers, 
the sulphur for the nails and hair, the sodium for the bile, 
the cineritious matter for the nerves, etc.; each element 
taken from the compound, as it is borne along the tide of 
life, and deposited quietly and with certainty into its ap- 
propriate depot ? What gives play to the automatic pulsa- 
tions of the heart, and all other muscular and nervous 
movements, whether awake or asleep, by whose unceasing 
operations vitality is maintained ? 

The intimate connection of the various systems consti- 
tuting our physical organism is recognized by all physiolo- 
gists. A nerve force of some kind is also perceived to 
exist. But so intricate and inexplicable the causes of these 
movements, that authors of text-books on Physiology give 
in explanation of the phenomena of nutrition, secretion, 
etc., only molecular relations and conditions. Dr. W. B. 
Carpenter [Physiology] says: "In all forms of true secre- 
tion, the selection of the materials to be separated from 
the blood is accomplished by the agency of cells." "Each 
glandular organ has its independent action in virtue of the 
endowments of its cells." "But the greatest difficulty is to 
comprehend the reason why such a variety of products 
which nourish the entire fabric should result from the action 
of cells which appear to be so exactly alike." Prof. Hunt 



Pary-Dualism — Psychology. 67 

says: "These operations must be referred to a subtler 
kind of chemistry than has yet been discovered." 

The various solids and fluids of the physical system con- 
stitute but molecular substances, which the forces of co- 
hesion and affinity can bind together, but which would be 
destitute of life, not only, were it not for the gaseous ele- 
ment we breathe, but, as the author holds, were it not for the 
still deeper fundamental and non-transmutable ethereal ele- 
ment which enters into the substance of the inner body, 
which forms the germinal type of the physical structure, and 
the sub-stratum of the cellular system. This last-named or- 
ganism constitutes the seat of the vital or unconscious Force 
which directs the action of the cells in the selection of their 
respective materials from the circulating blood. The real 
entity which forms the sub-stratum of the protoplasm, 
which Prof. Huxley defines "the formal basis of life," is 
here held to be the non-transmutable and permanent basis 
upon which the transmutable molecules are adjusted to the 
organic relations, fulfill their mission, and pass away in 
succession, and which basis is co-existent with the actuating 
spirit. The self-directive mental force conserves the char- 
acteristics both of vegetal and animal life, — of the former, 
in the unconscious direction of the processes of nutrition, 
circulation, etc., for the maintenance of the organism, and 
of the latter, in the conscious direction of the sensorial action. 
In the higher relations of mind to psychical action, we have 
the corresponding unconscious and conscious cerebration. 

The physical or cosmic organism therefore is regarded 
but the outer part of the permanent vehicle, the part which 
constitutes the physical instrument of the mind's opera- 
tions in its relations to the physical universe, and which is 
subject to the laws of cosmic matter, is continually wasting 
and passing away into other forms of being, when such 
molecules become obsolete, as to the physical nature as 
really as the bark of a tree to its continuous life-form, ' ' the 
outer man perishing while the inner man" — in a material 
sense, if not always in a religious point of view — "is 
renewed day by day." The hypothesis of a permanent 
structure, elementary in its insipient stage, because we are 
now only in our elementary stage of being, — the hypothesis 
of a basis and medium of physiological action, which forms the 
fundamental part of our material system, having its centers 
of vital action at the corresponding centers of the mole- 
cular organism, furnishes the rational ground of explaining 
the phenomena of our complex constitution, " fearfully and 
wonderfully made." 



68 Science and Philosophy. 

The presence of the psychical nature in our constitution 
seems essential also to account for the action of the nervous 
system, and its relations to Sensation. The nervous sys- 
tem, the highest in order and importance pertaining to the 
physical structure, as is well known, is composed of the 
brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves which ramify the 
entire system, the first two constituting the cerebro-spinal 
center. This special department of our physical nature 
forms a system which corresponds with a telegraphic sys- 
tem of wires which constitute the physical mechanism in 
the action of the common ether for conveying messages to 
and from a central battery. The nerves are composed of 
cineritious molecules, and form the molecular organism 
through which the special ethereal substance forming the 
insipient future body, conveys the impressions received 
in the sensorium and the mandates of the mind are given 
to the various organs used as instruments of the intelligent 
will. 

The two classes of nerves distinguished as afferent and 
efferent, or nerves of sensation and of motion, meet in 
ganglionic centers along the spinal cord, and form appa- 
rently a common nerve, yet their separate functions are 
continued in a most intricate manner, but known to be 
kept distinct by their capacity to transmit different results 
at the termini of each class. This double function of a com- 
mon nerve reveals at least a structure of such delicacy that 
we may well conclude that it is based upon a substance 
of a refined but substantial nature, to which has been 
given the significant term " nervous ether, " inasmuch as 
it is a specialized form of ether connected with the nervous 
system, giving it its peculiar functional capacities.* 

Says Dr. Richardson [Half-Hour Recreations], "The 
evidence in favor of the existence of an elastic medium 
pervading the nervous matter, is all-convincing." The 
phenomena of nervous susceptibility and nervous action 
fail to be explained except by this hypothesis, which has 
long been maintained by physiologists of the highest stand- 
ing, although different theories have been held as to its 
nature. Whether it is a peculiar product of vital action, or 
a permanent substance inhering originally in the very 
germ and growth of our physical system ; whether it is a 
chemical substance composed of molecular elements, or 

* It may here be stated that a specialization of the common ether in 
the structure of our material organization, is as reasonable a hypothesis 
as the specialization of the dynamic Force in the constitution of the 
chemical Force. 



Pan-Dualism — Psychology. 69 

of the nature of ether, and hence non-transmutable and 
permanent ; whether it moves in currents or acts in a 
vibratory manner, like heat, light, etc., — transmitting the 
effects of nerve forces, — physiologists are not agreed. The 
author holds to the latter of each of these alternatives, 
but cannot give space in this article for the reasons, 
except two or three pertaining to sensorial action. 

The seat of sensation and perception is by all regarded 
as existing within the brain. The particular part or region 
in which impressions through the senses are received, and 
from which the mandates of the will issue, is called the 
Sensorium, which may be, as Prof. Carpenter supposes, 
situated at the base of the cerebrum, having its seat of 
action in the "gray matter" of the brain. The ganglionic 
centers of nervous action all along the main column are 
secondary centers, the cerebral ganglia being the primary. 

The rapidity of the transmission of impressions cannot be 
explained satisfactorily, without accepting the theory of the 
nervo- ethereal substance supposed to permeate the nerves. 
Experiments have shown that the velocity of the nervo- 
ethereal vibrations required for the sensation of touch, or 
the feeling of physical pain, is about the rate of one hun- 
dred feet per second, or that an instant of one-fifteenth of a 
second is required to produce the sensation. In describing 
this action of the nervous system, the earlier physiologists 
were led to account for the rapidity of transmissions upon 
the hypothesis of " animal spirits in constant motion, per- 
forming the office of messengers between the brain and the 
organs of sense." This substance has been held by some 
to enter into the psychical structure only as a temporary 
link or medium which unites the physical with the psychi- 
cal organism. The author conceives that the nervous 
ether bears the same relation to the psychical sensorium 
(to be considered onward) and the psychical centers of the 
ganglia throughout the nervous system, as the white mat- 
ter bears to the gray matter of the brain and nerves ; it 
constitutes the telegraphic channel or medium of transmit- 
ting impressions. 

Whatever facts may exist with reference to " animal 
magnetism," its sphere of influence includes the psychic 
nature as the medium of its peculiar force. This may be 
the immediate agency which gives flushness and tone to 
the vital organism, and whose partial suspension of func- 
tion occasions languor, and the care-worn and emaciated 
expression of the human countenance ; while in its state 
of energetic action, the countenance often beams with 



70 Science and Philosophy. 

celestial light and glows as if the immortal nature were 
ready to break through its physical bonds. Prof. Schober- 
lein, quoted by Dr. Joseph Cook, has a corresponding 
thought. He says: "The peculiar traits of spiritual 
beauty which occasionally beam out from the persons of 
ripened believers, are actual reflexes of the transfigured 
corporeity which lies potentially within them." 

From this general view of the channel of conveying im- 
pressions, the medium of communications between the 
mind and the outer world, let us consider, in brief, the 
nature of the functions of the Sensorium, which is the seat 
of sensation, and the instrument of intellectual operations. 
This organ is composed of the same kind of matter with 
the nervous tissues throughout the system, and, of course, 
is composed of atomic matter. Like all other parts of the 
living organism, it is subject to continuous waste and 
renewal. It is supposed that during a period of about 
seven years each particle of matter completes its cycle and 
passes from the system, corresponding new ones taking its 
place. This process of change of course obtains with respect 
to the components of the nervous tissues, and even the gray 
matter of the sensorium and ganglia. Now, a chief func- 
tion of the sensorium is commonly supposed to be to 
receive and retain the impressions and ideas which the 
intellect perceives and appropriates in thought. The 
question, how these impressions which become ideas are 
retained, and the memory of events perpetuated for future 
use? will be answered according to one's scheme of phi- 
losophy. Some conceive that these impressions are re- 
tained in the substance of the mind, or spirit entity. But 
the primary acts of the intellect are to perceive the impres- 
sions as they are made, and to conceive ideas previously 
formed ; and in the mental operation of recalling ideas, 
there is a conscious eifort, as if to actuate the functional 
mechanism or instrumental agency the mind employs in its 
cogitations. It is reasonable, therefore, and even necessary 
to infer that the impressions are made upon some kind of 
tablet, and that the mind takes cognizance of them, per- 
ceives them when first presented to notice, and when sub- 
sequently observed as specific perceptions, or conceives, as 
in reflection, the ideas as pictures formed and remaining 
upon such tablet for any subsequent ratiocination. The 
adherents of the materialistic philosophy maintain that the 
impressions are made upon the molecules of the physical 
sensorium. But the fact has been noticed that the mole- 
cules are subject to constant waste ; hence, upon this 



Pan-Dualism — Psychology. 71 

hypothesis, the impressions are but temporary, and the last 
vestige of memory would pass from observation within a 
few years, — which is contrary to all experience. 

Prof. Huxley, and others, conceive that a remnant or 
vestige of ideas or images, to which the term "vestigia" 
is applied, is retained by some kind of reflex sensory 
action, as vibratory motion. Suppose, however, as com- 
monly held by materialists, that the physical cerebrum 
were endowed with a capacity for propagating its impres- 
sions through natural life, so that the oncoming molecules 
of the sensorium shall receive the impressions from the 
wasting tablet ; what would become of the mental furni- 
ture at death, when the whole physical system shall dis- 
solve " like the baseless fabric of a vision," and its ele- 
ments shall enter new compounds and forms of being % If, 
as it is generally held by the class referred to, there is no 
future state of being, and no responsibility beyond the pres- 
ent life, such impressions and ideas are not needed. 

It is evident that for the purpose of retaining thought 
impressions and the memory of events, and to have power 
to recall ideas, there must be a permanent sensorial tablet 
ofanon-transmutable nature; and such is believed to obtain 
as a permanent fixture in our material constitution. It is 
held that this permanent Sensorium is of an ethereal or 
psychical nature ; and that the transmission of such im- 
pressions is through the medium of the nervous ether 
which impinges upon the psychical sensorium as its center, 
and upon the ganglionic centers of a corresponding psychi- 
cal substance, as the secondary centers, which, with the 
Cardium about to be noticed, form the interior psychical 
system in its insipient or cosmic relations. A permanent 
sensorium, or seat of sensations and idea, is essential, as 
the basis of memory and recollection, and for continuity of 
thought. Such a psychical tablet is alone sufficient as the 
fundamental material condition of mental operations, and 
for perpetuity of knowledge. The capacity for retaining 
our sensations and ideas, and so the remembrance of the 
past in our history, and for retaining the facts of science 
generally in the mind is essential to the high functions of 
the future and immortal state. An imperishable senso- 
rium only, such as has been described, can render our 
knowledge immortal. Moreover, the identity and immor- 
tality of our being are possible only upon the hypothesis 
here maintained. 

Space will be given further only for the suggestion, 
without argument, that the psychical nature includes the 



72 Science and Philosophy. 

whole sphere of ganglionic action pertaining to the whole 
nervous system. The popular idea that the heart is the 
seat of the affections, as the brain is of the intellect, is con- 
firmed in the consciousness of a psychical action which pro- 
duces a sensible effect upon the whole being. The sensi- 
tivity is susceptible of three forms of affection : 1st, the 
general physical affections, as physical pain, caused by 
disturbed molecular relations ; 2d, the psychical affections, 
as love, grief, sympathy, fear, etc.; 3d, the moral, affec- 
tions pertaining to the conscience, as the sense either of 
approval or guilt. The psychical affections are often 
excited by the knowledge of an injury, as a wound, 
received by another person, which moves one to commis- 
eration, — sometimes exciting a painful tremor, either of 
the heart or lower extremities of the physical system. The 
sympathetic nerves constitute the channel of such trans- 
mission of the cardiac impressions. The term Cardium may 
properly be used to designate the seat of the sensitivity, 
as the term sensorium is used to designate the seat of the 
Intellect. See p. 31. 

From the facts considered in this article, it may be seen 
that the human constitution conserves the four states of 
matter, — solid, liquid, gaseous, and ethereal, in union with 
the four orders of Force, — dynamic, vegetal, animal, and 
mental, forming one being or personality. All these enter 
into the economy of the present life, but finally the three 
lower forms, both of matter and spirit, are superseded by 
the action of mind in its inseparable and only relation to 
the ethereal or psychical body. This ethereo-mental con- 
stitution comes forth at death into its super-cosmic state 
with inconceivably increased activities and susceptibilities. 
And thus the dual constitution in essence, commencing as 
the germinal type of our being, " growing with our growth, " 
is perpetuated in our unchangeable and immortal being. 

The substance of this article had been written and lec- 
tures given, maintaining the hypothesis announced, many 
months, while the theory itself had been maintained many 
years, before the author had seen the following quotations 
of Dr. Joseph Cook, in his Boston lectures, 1877-8, from 
the teachings of the following German divines : Prof. 
Ulrici of Halle, holds that " The soul has an ethereal 
enswathement from which it is not separated at death.' 1 
Again Ulrici argues that " if we are to oe strictly true to 
the law of cause and effect, we must infer the existence of 
some substance in which our sense of identity inheres." 
Prof. Scoberlein, of the University of Gottenburg, above 



Pan-Dualism — Angelic Natures. 73 

quoted, has the following: "The natural, fleshy body is 
simply the receptacle, the womb, in which the new body is 
invisibly generated and qualified up to the hour when, the 
crude flesh falling away, it shall pass into the heavenly 
state and spring forth into its beauty and actuality." 

6. Angelic Natures. 

The material universe is one system of cosmic nature, 
composed of the same kinds of elements. This doctrine of 
science is confirmed by all analyses of planets, suns and 
nebulse. It is presumable that a vast number of habitable 
planets belonging to solar systems are, or have been, occu- 
pied by intelligent beings corresponding with the human 
race. It is highly probable that our moon, "now waxing 
old and ready to vanish away," and that Mars, if not 
Yenus and Mercury, is now a theater of vegetal and ani- 
mal life, not only, but of mind and rational activity. 
Whither have such orders of rational beings gone, from a 
worn-out world ? and what is their mode of being ? Consist- 
ently with the views expressed in this work, these intelli- 
gent inhabitants must have been translated from the cosmic 
to the super-cosmic state, and that the vehicle of their 
activity is a " spiritual" or psychical body, adapted to such 
advanced state. 

What science and reasonable hypothesis have concurred 
in teaching has been a special subject of Revelation, viz., 
that different orders, at least grades, of intelligent beings 
exist, many of whom have visited the earth and performed 
ministerial acts, sometimes retributive, in the interest of 
the kingdom of God. Such beings are designated by the 
general term Angels — messengers, bearing various titles, 
indicating rank and office. The following exhibits these 
orders with the principal titles given in the Scriptures, 
and their probable significations [Comp. Col. 1 : 16] : 

Holy Ones, Living Ones, etc. Beings belonging to for- 
mer cosmoses or worlds, composing the Celestial Hierarchy. 

1. Arch-angels: Chiefs in dignity and station, "Thrones," 
"Princes." 

2. Seraphim, (burning ones) : Supreme Hosts, "Domin- 
ions." 

3. Cherubim, (knowing ones): Superior Hosts, "Prin- 
cipalities." 

4. Angels, (messengers): Hosts, " Powers. " 

Pres. Timothy Dwight, in his sermon 18th, says : " The 
names Thrones, Dominions, Principalities and Powers, 



74 Science and Philosophy. 

are fairly supposed to denote different orders of the 
angelic hosts." "Angels are those who, under God the 
Supreme Ruler, hold, throughout His immense and eternal 
Empire, authority and power. All other finite beings, 
therefore, are beneath them in dignity, and subordinate to 
them in station." 

Dr. Harris [Man Primeval] says: "Man's creation sub- 
sequent to that of angels implies his superiority of consti- 
tution and ultimate destination." This might be inferred, 
if angels were linked in the chain of terrestrial beings with 
man, as we have seen the previous order to be. But no 
such relation is found to exist. Analogy teaches that, as 
the highest subjective existence is reached in the constitu- 
tion of man, such high end of the subordinate creatures of 
other worlds must be supposed to be reached in the case of 
the intelligent beings we are contemplating. Dr. H. 
answers himself in the same paragraph where he states 
that " The angelic and terrestrial economies may have 
proceeded independently and separately through processes 
parallel to that of the earth, in some other part of the 
Divine dominions." The two classes of being must be 
considered as possessing corresponding natures, whether 
originating from a world belonging to the present cosmos, 
or to former ones. Yet it is reasonable that priority of 
existence in beings of similar natures be regarded as con- 
sistent with superiority of rank, for the same reason that a 
person of superior intelligence and wisdom, by reason of 
age or culture, or even possessing natural superiority of 
talents, or, further, of perfection of moral character, — is 
entitled to a rank above one who has not such attainments. 
An examination of the only record we possess of the holy 
character as well as superior knowledge possessed by 
unfallen angels will satisfy the inquirer that the celestial 
hosts must rank above the human in dignity and honor. 
Dr. Kitto [Cyclopedia] supposes " there maybe different 
grades and classes, and even natures, ascending from man 
toward God." But it is sufficient for our purpose to regard 
them as possessing corresponding psychical and spiritual 
natures, and the evidences appear in every part of the 
Scriptures where allusion is made to them. 

Of their spiritual nature and attainments little need be 
stated, inasmuch as all believers in the existence of such 
beings at all, regard them as possessing attributes of mind. 
The teaching of Christ that u of that day and hour knoweth 
no man, not even the angels in heaven" implies their 
superior knowledge, though limited. But the Scriptures 



Pan-Dualism — Angelic Natures. 75 

also seem to teach, either plainly or by implication, that 
they also possess material bodies, — often phenomenally 
physical whatever explanation may be given to the tact. 
Observation and rational psychology teach that all orders of 
terrestrial being, including man, are constituted of two 
natures, material and spiritual. Angelic beings, held to 
be of an order corresponding with man, — made in the 
Divine image, it is reasonable to suppose, must possess the 
same kind of ps} T chical nature, or ethereo-psychical body. 
The following Scripture references substantiate these views, 
the passages being readily found by students of the Bible : 
Angels appeared to patriarchs, prophets and apostles. — 
An angelic host met Jacob. — An angel ascended in the 
flame that arose from Manoah's altar. — An angel excelling 
in strength smote the Assyrian camp destroying 185,000 
persons. — An angel shut the lion's mouth while Daniel 
was in the den. — Gabriel, being caused to fly very swiftly, 
touched Daniel. — The same angel assured and comforted 
Zachariah and Mary. — A cohort of angels announced to 
shepherds, with joyful song, the Advent of the Eedeemer. 
— Mary saw angels at Christ's sepulcher. — The glory of an 
angel enlightened the prison in which Peter was bound, 
breaking his chains and releasing him. — Moses received 
the law, and John Revelations, at the hand of angels. 
— And the Son of Man shall come the second time in glory 
with His angels. 

The instance recorded in Daniel, 10th chapter, and many 
others might be referred to, containing records of those 
messengers, in which their personal presence, their beam- 
ing countenance, their mighty acts, their language and 
songs, reveal the fact that they possess material vehicles 
immeasurably transcending in susceptibilities for achieve- 
ments, for interposition of the natural order of events, for 
rapidity of flight, etc., all that may be conceived possible 
by man in his present state, or any other beings constituted 
with cosmic bodies, while they possess attributes fitting 
them for vast, resplendent and unceasing spiritual employ- 
ments in the celestial realm, " The glory which the 
angels display must be visible, and consequently material, 
otherwise it could not be contemplated by the assembled 
inhabitants of our world, and could present no glory or 
luster to their view. An assemblage of purely spiritual 
beings, however numerous and exalted in point of intelli- 
gence, would be a mere inanity in a scene intended to ex- 
hibit a visible display of the celestial grandeur and glory." 

Some infer that angels are purely spiritual, because they 



76 Science and Philosophy. 

are called " ministering spirits," and it is stated that "He 
maketh his angels spirits ;" but it is also added, "His 
ministers are a fiame of fire." If the passage proves that 
angels are spirits, it also proves that they &vefla?nes. Says 
the author of "Man Primeval," " The reasoning generally 
applied to prove that angels are absolutely bodiless, would 
prove that the saints will be likewise, even after the resur- 
rection." Dr. Thomas Dick [Future State] says: "All 
the descriptions Revelation gives of these beings lead us to 
conclude that they are connected with the world of matter 
as well as mind, and are furnished with organic vehicles 
composed of some refined material substance suitable to 
their nature and employments." 

7. Theogenetic Nature. 

The preceding subjects relate to finite beings, either 
mundane or ante-mundane, — to natures either cosmic or 
super-cosmic. We now pass from the consideration of 
finite beings to arguments for the general hypothesis of a 
dual nature as belonging to Infinite being, to natures ante- 
cedent to the universe, and the Cause of all ; and hence 
whose existence has neither been the result of cosmic pro- 
cesses, nor in any way dependent upon cosmic orders or 
modes of existence. The natures included in this distinc- 
tion may be said to be, not super-cosmic, as orders having 
come out of the cosmic, but super-ethereal, and unchange- 
able in essence and mode, save as in the case of the subject 
now to be considered, a body has been temporarily as- 
sumed. "A body hast thou prepared for me." 

The diagrammatic scheme exhibits the relations of the 
Theogenetic nature to the Theotic, and also to the finite 
angelic and human beings. The term Theogenetic, horn of 
God, refers to the Divine Personality designated in the 
Scriptures by different terms, as Son of God, Logos, Word, 
Mediator, Messiah or Christ, etc. The two aspects of this 
Personality are given in the Hebrew and Christian Records, 
sometimes with distinct reference to one or the other na- 
ture, and at other times by such terms as seem to be ap- 
propriate to the union of these. That the visible form of 
Jesus was that of a man, having a physical organism, man- 
ifestly human, was a fact which both sacred and secular 
history affirm. The Scriptures repeatedly announce that 
there was allied with this organism a divine nature, and 
this doctrine is accepted by "all who call themselves 
Christians." Further, it is stated and believed that there 



Pan-Dualism — Angelic Natures. 77 

was an assumption of a human body, called the Incarna- 
tion, as expressed in the following and many other pas- 
sages : " The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us." 
" Who being in the form of God, in the image of the 
Father, took upon him the form of a servant, and was 
made in the likeness of men." 

It is not taught nor believed by the author that the Di- 
vine nature was changed into the human, nor in any way 
essentially limited ; infinite nature, whether spiritual or 
material, is immutable ; but that the cosmic body was 
superadded, mysteriously, it is true, to the Divinity of 
which the Son of God could not divest himself. The 
Christ was one Person, both before and after the assump- 
tion of the physical body. He was " The brightness of 
the Father's glory and the express image of his Person, 
the only begotten of the Father," before the existence of 
the human race, before angelic orders, before the primeval 
substance of the universe. He was the Logos, the Divine 
Wisdom, " from everlasting" (Prov. 8 ch.), "whose goings 
forth had been from of old, from the days of eternity" 
(Micah 5 ch.). "The incarnation was a vailing rather 
than a revealing of the Divine Nature of the only begotten 
Son, who is in the bosom of the Father." 

These outline statements indicate the views maintained 
in reference to the nature of the Logos. The physical body 
of Jesus the Christ, which was made in the likeness of 
flesh, was born, ate, drank, slept, suffered the bufferings 
of his enemies, and finally death upon the cross. This 
body, which was superadded to the originally invisible 
body of the Son of God, when it had served the purpose of 
the assumption, was laid aside or abandoned, as really as 
human bodies at death, and no doubt dissolved into its 
original elements, like the bodies of Enoch and Elijah, 
which also ascended out of sight, but in what part of the 
cosmic universe, whether dissolving in mid-air or elsewhere, 
has not been revealed. "Flesh and blood cannot enter 
into the Kingdom of God." We are, therefore, to consider 
the evidences of the dual nature of the indwelling divinity 
of Christ corresponding to the material and spiritual na- 
tures of angelic and human orders in the super-cosmic state. 

The Theophanies of the Old Testament, as in the burning 
bush, the shechinah, the pillar of cloud and of fire, etc., bear 
testimony to a Divine presence ; whether that of God him- 
self, or His Son, who is " the image of the invisible God," 
and the medium of the Divine manifestations and works. If 
these displays are thought to be but visible symbols of 



78 Science and Philosophy. 

invisible realities, it may be replied that there must be a cor- 
respondence of material natures, otherwise there have been 
false representations to human cognizance ; and that the 
realities must be inconceivably greater than the outer sym- 
bols. This is more than indicated in the fact that the 
" children of Israel could not look upon the face of Moses," 
even when enveloped in the shechinah, without his being 
veiled. Ex. 34 ch. It has generally been believed that 
the person that appeared in the furnace of fire with the 
Hebrew worthies, was the Messiah. "The form of the 
fourth is like the Son of God." Scott says: "Whatever 
the king might mean by the fourth person being like the 
Son of God, it is probable that it was indeed the eternal 
and co-equal Son of the Father, and not a created angel." 
The Transfiguration of Christ teaches, with respect to 
His divine nature four special truths, 1st. That He is 
invested with a glorious material body ; 2d. That His Per- 
son is distinct from that of the Father ; 3d. That the 
Father declared Him to be His Son ; 4th. That the Son 
was invested with authority to utter as the Logos the 
Diving teachings. " This is my beloved Son in whom I 
am well pleased ; hear him." Ordinarily invisible to pres- 
ent vision, the display furnished proof that the Messiah 
had a real glory which belonged to His nature. The fav- 
ored disciples saw their Master invested with a glory which 
transcended all their previous conceptions of Him. They 
gazed upon that resplendent form with transport, permitted 
thus to " behold His glory, the glory as of the only begot- 
ton of the Father," without being overcome. To heighten 
their amazement, Moses and Elias appeared and talked 
with Jesus. Coming thus to have a glimpse of the invis- 
ible world, it is not strange that these disciples trembled, 
nor that Peter should express his desire to remain in such 
illustrious company, exalted upon the mount of privilege, 
nor his singular proposal to detain the celestial visitors 
with their Master by the erection of three tabernacles. But 
when, suddenly, the voice of the Father was heard, " they 
fell on their face and were sore afraid," being overpow- 
ered, for they felt themselves to be in the very presence of 
God, as well as His Son, now partially exhibited in His 
glory ; and Moses had taught that "no man could see the 
face of God and live," or, while in the flesh. We find Peter 
afterwards alluding to this wonderful scene and the audible 
utterance as "such a voice from the excellent glory." Is 
this account a myth ? were the disciples deceived ? or was 
it not truly a glimpse of an ineffable reality? But such a 



Pan-Dualism — Angelic Natures. 79 

reality evidently implies a material substance of the high- 
est nature ; that it is such as may come within the cogniz- 
ance of the psychical capacities, and which constitutes a 
central object of view to the rapt gaze of "an innumerable 
company before the throne of God and the Lamb." 

Stephen (Acts 7 ch.), having answered his accusers, 
u looked up steadfastly into heaven, and seeing the glory 
of God," said: "Behold, I see the heavens opened, and 
the Son of Man standing on the right hand of God." 
Compare Heb. 1 ch.: "When he had purged our sins, he 
sat down on the right hand of Majesty on high." 

The obvious teachings of the Scriptures in reference to 
Christ's first advent is, that the Logos was a Personality 
in the true sense of the term, — one whose presence could 
be made visible to being in the corresponding psychical 
state, and who could manifest His Divine nature, while 
ordinarily His presence was indicated by the human body 
which was assumed, or through "the veil of the flesh." 
When, therefore, we find it stated that "God gave His 
only begotten Son," and when we find it affirmed by 
Christ Himself, "I came forth from heaven, — I came out 
from God," the language implies the act of the Messiah 
in leaving the throne of God, and manifesting himself by 
the bodily symbol of His real, interior, divine presence. 
Christ said, "I go to prepare a place for you, — I go to the 
Father, and I will come again and receive you to myself, 
that where I am ye may be also." Such language implies 
a material place, a material presence and material acts. 
Other arguments for the doctrine of the material nature of 
the Son of God will be added in another place. 

There are considerations which seem to confirm the view 
maintained by some, of the "eternal generation," or going 
forth from the Immanent Nature, both materially and 
spiritually. Prof. Lewis [Six Days of Creation, p. 319] 
paraphrases Ps. 110: 3, with Prov. 8 ch., thus: "Before 
the birth of nature thou hadst thy generations, before 
the first morning of the world thou hadst the 
early dew of Thy nativity;" and adds, "we may 
regard it as treating of the same eternal One 
whose ancient outgoings are mentioned in Mich. 
5: 2, and in Prov. 8: 22-30, "The Lord possessed 
me in the beginning of His way, before His works of old. 
I was set up (exalted) from everlasting, from the begin- 
ning," etc. The term Logos means not only Word, but 
Wisdom. Hence, in the remarkable passage referred to, 
Wisdom has been regarded as no other than the Logos, or 



80 Science and Philosophy. 

Son of God. Prof. Lewis says: "Wisdom was the be- 
ginning itself, the first Outgoing, the Eternally Born, the 
Beginning of His ways, the Jrrincipium principiorum. 
The Hebrew verb rendered possessed, is strictly a word of 
generation." Hence he renders the passage as follows: 
" The Lord possessed me as His own, or only Begotten, 
the Beginning of His ways, before His works of old. From 
eternity was I anointed, — away before the beginning of the 
antiquities of the earth. When there were no chaoses was 
I born. I was ever with Him like an only child ; — day — 
day — was I His delight, rejoicing ever before Him." 

Justin Martyr, one of the earliest Christian Philosophers, 
after Paul, and who presented his first Apology to the 
emperor Antonius Pius, A.D. 140, expressed his concep- 
tion of the Logos in the following terms : " Jesus Christ 
is, in the proper sense, the only Son, begotten of God, 
being His Word, the first born, and power. 
But His Son, who is rightly called Son, who before all 
created things was with Him as His Word, when in the 
beginning He created and ordered all things through Him," 
etc. "Now, next in order 'to the Father and Lord, the first 
Power is the Word, concerning whom we shall relate how 
He was made." The Nicene Creed, A.D. 325, contains 
the following : "We believe in one God, the Father Al- 
mighty, Maker of all things, both visible and invisible, 
and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten 
of the Father, only-begotten, that is to say, of the substance 
of the Father, — not made, being of one substance with the 
Father." They nsed the Greek word 'omousion, from 
'omos, same, and ousia, substance, nature, essence. The 
sense is that the Son is consubstantial with the Father. 

The Son of God as Mediator stands between the In- 
effable Essence and the finite creation, the medium of the 
existence of all beings and operations. "By him were all 
things created, and stand together or cohere." Elsewhere 
Paul says: "God created all things by Jesus Christ."" It 
may be observed that whatever is the work of the son is vir- 
tually the work of the Father. The old adage, Qui facit 
per alium, facit se, whatever one does by another he him- 
self does, has its application in the creative works executed 
immediately by the Son. Finite creatures cannot, of 
course, apprehend the mode of operation in the origination 
of the forms of existence. But prior to the forms of dy- 
namic action and of life in distinct creations, or the origin- 
ation of distinct beings, "The Father hath life in Him- 
self.", The author of "Christian Theism" remarks upon 



Pan-Dualism — Angelic Natures. 81 

this passage, that "it is difficult to attach any definite 
meaning to these words, unless we understand them to 
assert this inherent and underived Being, predicated in the 
terms, I am that I am." Christ teaches further (Jno. 5: 
26) that "the Father hath given to the Son to have life in 
Himself," a real substance of the same nature, but person- 
ally distinct from the Father. So that it came with truth 
founded upon the ontological relations originally existing 
between God and His Son to be said, " In him was Life, 
and the Life was the light of men." "And we show you 
that eternal Life which was with the Father, and was man- 
ifested to us. " [John.] 

There has often been confusion of thought in studying 
many passages of Scripture containing titles and other 
terms applied both to the Father and the Son. Thus, 
"The Word was with God, and the Word was God." As 
early as A.D. 40, Philo wrote : " The Word of the 
Supreme Being is the First-begotten Son, the Second 
Deity." It is common to observe in theological works and 
discussions that special stress is laid upon those terms 
which refer to Christ's divinity, so much so that it might 
be inferred that he is not only of the same nature with the 
Father, but that he is equal in rank and authority, and 
that "there is nothing left to a being higher and greater 
than Christ, or who can have any. material concern with 
the universe." The unity of God is declared in many pas- 
sages : thus, "The Lord our God is one Lord;" "There 
is none other God but one." Pres. Dwight [Sermons] 
has maintained quite exhaustively this doctrine ; yet we 
find that in establishing the doctrine of Christ's divinity 
he has endeavored to show, not without fallacy, that Christ 
is the Self-existent and Supreme being. Commenting upon 
Isa. 48: 12, and onward, he teaches that "the Person 
sending and the Person sent are equally Jehovah." Fur- 
ther on, he remarks that, "He who is the first Cause or 
Creator, and the last End of all things, is all that is or can 
be meant by the Supreme God." 

We find indeed in the Scriptures the same names and 
titles frequently given to both the Father and Son ; on 
which account one maintaining a particular form of belief 
is quite liable to use those terms which are supposed to 
confirm his special view. Agreement upon the doctrines 
of Christianity would be maintained essentially, and the 
advancement of the great interests of religion promoted, 
if due discrimination obtained in the use of terms, and if 
the sense of the authors, or the use of such terms in the 
6 



82 Science and Philosophy. 

places where found were understood. These are some- 
times difficult to determine ; hence chiefly the differences 
in doctrine. There are terms in the Scripture which de- 
note Being, Essence or Nature, as God, or such as denote 
Supremacy or Power, as Lord, which apply in special 
senses to both the Father and the Son. It is the indis- 
criminate use of such terms which occasion wrong concep- 
tions of the relations and works of these distinctive Persons. 
The English word God is said to be of Anglo-Saxon origin, 
signifying good / but by this word we mean more than an 
attribute ; we associate the idea of Divine Essence, which 
is the signification of the Greek Theos ; or of Majesty and 
authority by the Hebrew Elohim. Where it is said, " God 
was manifested in the flesh," or " God with us," the term 
should be understood to signify Essence or Nature. As 
the Son is consubstantial or homeo-natural with the Father, 
the term God has been applied to him ; but it should be 
restricted to the appropriate sense. So the term Lord is 
appropriated to Christ, but it should be understood as 
limited to the use of the Hebrew Adonai, Lord, Ruler, or 
to one vested with authority, as the Son was by the Father; 
and not in the sense of the Hebrew Yehovah, which sig- 
nifies primarily Self-existence, the Cause of all other exist- 
ences, then Supremacy. If used in the latter sense, it 
may correspond in meaning: with John 5 : 27, " And [the 
Father] hath given him authority to execute judgment." 
The proper distinction is made in Ps. 110: 1, "Jehovah said 
to my Lord [Adonai] sit thou at my right hand until I make 
thine enemies thy footstool." The name Creator is not 
applied to the Son, yet Paul has taught that "By Him 
were all things created." He has more fully stated the 
case in Eph. 3:9: "God, who created all things by Jesus 
Christ." See adage above. Isaiah says : "Hast thou not 
heard that the everlasting God. Jehovah, the Creator of 
the ends of the earth?" etc. The distinction generally 
recognized as stating the fact and relation of the work of 
creation is contained elsewhere: "There is but one God, 
the Father, of whom are all things, and we in Him/ and 
one Lord Jesus Christ, by whom are all things, we also by 
Him." So elsewhere, as "God sent His Son into the 
world, that the world might be saved through, or by Him ;" 
and other passages. 

We shall honor the Son if we accept His own teachings 
pertaining to this mystery of relation to the Father. The 
following passages referring to this special relation are 



Pan- Dualism — Theotic Nature. 83 

selected from His own teachings, to aid our conceptions of 
Him whom we exalt as Prince and Saviour. 

Pre-existenee. ''Before Abraham was, I am." "I 
speak that which I have seen with my Father." " Glorify 
thou me with the glory I had with thee before the world 
was." John 8th and 15th chs., and other passages. 

Derivation and Sameness of Nature. " I am the Son of 
God," Jn. 10: 36. "As the Father hath life in himself, 
so hath He given the Son to have life in himself." "I 
proceeded forth and came from God." "I live by the 
Father." 

The Father greater in Dignity and Power. ' i My 
Father is greater than I." "The Son can do nothing of 
himself." "To sit on my right hand and on my left hand 
is not mine to give." Compare 1 Cor. 15 : 24. 

The Son sent and invested with authority as Mediator. 
" God gave His only begotten Son." " I came down from 
heaven to do the will of Him that sent me." " All things 
are delivered to me of my Father." " The Father hath 
committed all judgment to His Son." "As the Father 
hath said unto me, so I speak." Comp. 1 Cor. 15: 28; 
Phil. 2:9. 

The honor due the Father. " Our Father who art in 
heaven, hallowed be Thy name." "Pray to thy Father 
which is in secret." "Father, glorify Thy Son," etc. Jn. 
17 chap. Comp. Phil. 2: 11. 

The honor due the Son. "The Father hath committed 
all judgment unto the Son, that all men should honor the 
Son as also they honor the Father. " Compare Phil. 2 : 9-11. 

8. Theotic Nature. 

The true knowledge of God is the demand of both rea- 
son and worship. A perfect knowledge of the Infinite 
One in the sense of completeness is unattainable especially 
in the present state of existence, since such object of 
knowledge is a fact which belongs to the sphere of the 
unseen, and can be known only by supercosmic manifesta- 
tion. It is indeed true of all ultimate nature and relations. 
" We know in part." But a real knowledge of God, or a 
right conception of Him, is possible, and, indeed, essential 
to rational and intelligent worship. Dr. D wight says : 
"To the right performance of this service it is absolutely 
necessary that we should know the being who created us. 
To an unknown Being man cannot be conscious of indebt- 
edness or obligation. By an unknown Being he cannot be 



84 Science and Philosophy. 

voluntarily governed. " Says Ar gyle : "Man is endowed 
with faculties capable of knowing and recognizing any 
truths concerning God." 

Human knowledge of actual being is real, though not 
infinite. Actual knowledge is attained by three methods: 
1st, by experience, or intuition and personal cognition ; 2d, 
by the laws and methods of reasoning, — inductive, deduct- 
ive, and analogical ; 3d, accredited testimony, belief in 
the statements of others, — a method universally recognized 
as practical, and as answering the purposes of the mind as 
really and often as certainly as experimental knowledge. 
All are grounds of evidence upon which we rely, practically, 
at least, for all the plans and activities of life. The 
Christian theist. goes farther, trusting the evidence of the 
existence of God and the future state, not simply from the 
light of nature and the validity of reason, but from the 
Scriptures based upon historic testimony. Many, however, 
do not believe in the existence of God, because, it is 
claimed, such an object does not come within the province 
of personal experience. With such the author has no con- 
troversy in the discussion of the doctrine of this article. In 
maintaining the theory of the dual nature of the Divine 
Being, the truthfulness of the Scriptures, as well as the valid- 
ity of reason, is assumed. Passing the consideration, more- 
over, of the existence of a spiritual entity in the Divine 
Nature, the author proposes to adduce arguments for the 
support of a material entity in such Nature, chiefly from 
evidences derived from the second and third methods above 
stated. 

The arguments for the doctrine announced are based 
largely upon facts -and relations deeper than "the things 
which are seen''' with mortal eye, or known through the 
ordinary channels of observation. We could not reverence 
a Being possessing a nature of an order not superior to 
the highest angelic and ethereal existence, and the author 
would have the minds of his readers, at the outset, divested 
of all thoughts concerning " rude matter," or cosmic ele- 
ments, as entering into the Divine Nature. Comparisons 
may aid us in lifting our thoughts to the realm of the high- 
est conceivable materiality. See "Ether and Potential 
Force." The following are also in point: It has been ascer- 
tained that it would require 500,000,000 hydrogen atoms 
to measure, if placed in a row, one inch in extent ; and 
that the 200,000,000th of a grain of salt is sufficient to 
produce a yellow tinge of sodium. Such rarity of trans- 
mutable gases is indeed too infmitestimal for finite appre- 



Pan- Dualism — Theotic Nature. 85 

ciation. But the tenuity of the non-transmutable ethereal 
element transcends all possible methods of finite measure- 
ment, — passes out of the province of chemistry, and, in- 
deed, of mathematics, belongs to the sphere of the 
immeasurable, and can be known only by the stern logic 
of deduction, — its operations and effects. If we pass to 
the specialized form of ethereal substance, as it obtains in 
the "spiritual body," human and angelic, we contemplate 
forms of materiality which are not only non-transmutable 
and undecaying, but whose properties and susceptibilities 
are super-cosmic and above all dependence upon ordinary 
material relations. And, if such nature pertains to the 
finite, how incomprehensible the corresponding nature of 
the Infinite. 

At the threshold of this argument, we shall be met by 
what is supposed to be the direct testimony of Christ, set- 
tling the question, that " God is a spirit." It occurs in a 
conversation at Jacob's well. A contention had long 
existed between the Jews and Samaritans about the proper 
place of worship. Our Saviour assured this woman that 
worship should be of a spiritual character, as among the 
things which are not seen, and does not depend upon 
place, for God is present in all places, and accepts worship 
offered in sincerity anywhere. It is not at all probable 
that Christ attempted to make this woman understand the 
ontological nature of God, or intended to give a philo- 
sophical statement of His incomprehensible essence, or mode 
of being. As the Bible nowhere else declares the simple 
spirituality of the Divine Nature, though frequent refer- 
ence is made to His Spirit, or its agency, and its influence 
upon human spirits, the author of this work regards the 
passage quoted as referring to God as an invisible Being, 
whose essential presence is everywhere. See closing para- 
graph in article " Angelic Natures." 

It has already been intimated that the Infinite Being is 
known, not only by Revelation, but by the deductions of 
Reason. Let us compare these methods as far as may be 
necessary to comprehend the fundamental facts of the 
Divine Nature. 

Rational Theism teaches that such a nature must include, 
ontologically and immanently, the following, viz.: Self- 
existence, Omnipresence, and Omnipotence. It also teaches 
the Immutability of the Divine essence and character. 
Revealed Theism teaches the same truths. 



86 Science and Philosophy. 

Self-existence and Causation. 

Self- existence is predicated only of a Being whose exist- 
ence is independent of any other being or cause. The 
term is not synonymous with " self-subsistence," heretofore 
applied to finite natures ; the latter term is used in describ- 
ing derived and created natures or existences containing 
properties or attributes which have been communicated. 
Every such nature, — cosmic, vegetal, animal, human or 
angelic, — exists in itself, though not of itself, possessing 
capacities and functions which are its own, and which con- 
stitute it a real being. Revealed religion teaches that 
self-existence is a property of the Divine nature, and that it 
pertains only to God. This is the import of the affirmation 
" I am." See Mark 12 : 32, and elsewhere. But we are 
in the midst of other forms of existence, ourselves also 
being parts of a vast universe, real, but not self-existent, 
for all are mutable, hence finite and dependent. As such, 
all are effects of the exertion of an adequate Cause, 
existing in the Divine Nature, the one Infinite Being, and 
the Source of all other being. Self-existence only can pro- 
duce self-subsistence; and these facts lead to the announce- 
ment of certain principles of all reasoning, viz.: 1st, 
comprehensively, every effect or event is the result of an 
adequate cause ; 2d, ontologically, such causes must cor- 
respond in essential nature with the effect ; 3d, what a cause 
does not contain it cannot impart : Quod non habet, dare 
non potest. Let us apply these principles in seeking 
evidences from the material and spiritual universe of the 
nature of the Infinite Cause and Center of all dependent 
being, or, as Aristotle addressed Him in prayer for pity 
when about to die, "Cause of causes." 

The following quotations will show how near the true 
conception of the Divine Nature men have come while 
maintaining the hypothesis of a spiritual entity only in this 
Nature. Dr. Turnbull, author of "Christ in History" 
and "Theophenies," says, "We are so constituted as to 
believe that every effect must have a cause, every event a 
basis, every phenomenon a substance ; over against rela- 
tions absolute existence, over against the finite the Infinite, 
the Cause of all things." Again, "We are so constituted 
as to be under a necessity of referring all qualities and 
changes to some Essence or Being in whom they inhere 
or from whom they proceed." The author of " Pre-Adam- 
ite Earth," and "Man Primeval," has the following, with 
other corresponding statements: " No part or property of 



Pan- Dualism — Theoiic Nature. 87 

man's nature can be named which is not related to the 
Divine Nature. Divine properties in man are incarnated, 
— humanized. He is in the image of God. As the very idea 
of sequence refers us back from effects to causes, till we 
reach the first link in the physical chain, the mind feels 
the force of an intellectual necessity that the pre-existing 
Cause of the whole must have been of a nature correspond- 
ing with the effects." The author of "Christian Theism" 
says: "The creatures of the great Creator may expect to 
find evidences of His Being in every part of nature, and in 
every part of our own constitution." Dr. Hitchcock 
[Religion of Geology] says: "The longer a man studies 
the works of God, the more inclined will he be to regard 
the universe, material and immaterial, as founded on 
eternal principles, as in fact a transcript of the Divine 
Nature." The author of " Positivism and Christianity" 
has the following: "The principle of cause and effect 
supplies the nexus which connects God and His works. 
To know God fully, we must know both mind and matter. 
We know God as substance, because we know ourselves as 
substance." He opposes the assumption that "there is 
something in the effect which is not in the cause," as when 
the soft, pulpy substance of the brain, or phosphorus, is 
supposed to produce thought. "To impart intelligence, 
there must be intelligence, on the principle of cause and 
effect." An article is contained in the wt Biblical Repos- 
itory," published some years ago, in which the writer has 
constructed an argument, substantially agreeing in princi- 
ple with the last quotation, and regarded as valid for 
maintaining the doctrine of the Divine Being, founded 
upon the rational and moral nature of man, and based 
especially upon the correspondence of an effect with its 
cause, in which the writer uses the following language: 
"That only can be a sufficient cause which is suited to the 
nature of the effect produced." Again, "A cause cannot 
be adequate unless it is also appropriate, by being invested 
with the characteristics and functions corresponding with 
those which are produced." Says the writer: "The 
rational and moral nature of man, as an effect, affords 
unanswerable proof of the existence of an intelligent 
Cause." The statement of Dr. McCosh may be accepted, 
viz., that " In God's works, as in Himself, there is a divers- 
ity in unity;" also, of Dr. Harris, that "every property 
of man's nature is related to the Divine Nature;" but the 
author leaves these without attempting to interpret their 
meaning, and returns to the point in question. It may 



88 Science and Philosophy. 

be stated then, as a valid inference, that the possession 
of an unchangeable material nature in man, as the psychi- 
cal essence, as an effect, affords unanswerable proof of the 
existence of a corresponding material Cause, at least, 
Origin. If a finite mind is an entity that proves the exist- 
ence of an Infinite Mind, does not parity of reasoning 
demand the inference that a finite psychical body proves 
the existence of an Infinite materiality of corresponding 
substance? "The mind feels the force of an intelligent 
necessity that the pre-existing cause" of this dual consti- 
tution, must be a dual nature "corresponding with the 
effect." The author of " Christ in History" asserts that 
"the material universe does not and cannot prove the 
spiritual nature of its Cause." Then it must prove the 
material nature of its Cause, unless it is uncaused and 
eternal. If man's material nature cannot be accounted 
for on the same principle that his spiritual nature is, then 
it may be held to be selfexistent and independent, by- 
forming part of a material and self-existent nature inde- 
pendent of God. And generally, if the existence of a 
spiritual essence in the universe proves the existence of a 
spiritual essence in the Source, then the existence of 
a material essence in the universe proves the existence of 
a material essence in the Source. While, moreover, it is a 
duction of the Reason that design and adaptation every- 
where seen, prove a designing and adapting Mind, the 
" operations," works, or creations prove the existence of 
an Operator or Creator who " worketh hitherto" by physi- 
cal agency corresponding with physical effects. It may 
also be said of Him, that if he 

" Lives through all life," 
He as truly 

. "extends through all extent. 
Spreads undivided, operates unspent." 

A theory which accounts for all the fundamental facts of 
our nature and of the universe is in accordance with rea- 
son, and hence should be accepted as against one which 
denies them, or which attributes effects either to inade- 
quate or unlike causes. As God is the "Fountain" of all 
finite nature, the inference is valid, because contained in 
the major premise, that there inhere in his nature corre- 
sponding essential properties, material and spiritual ; and 
since all finite nature is dual, the Infinite Nature must be 
dual also. 

Image of God. 

The teachings of reason in reference to likeness of being 



Pan- Dualism — Theotic Nature. 89 

have their correspondence and confirmation in the teach- 
ings of the Scriptures. Thus it is announced that "God 
created man in his own image." See numerous passages. 
An image is primarily a likeness or similitude, either in 
essential nature, or in representative form. In one or two 
instances the term is used in a figurative sense, pertaining 
to moral character. In the sense of essential nature, we 
find an appropriate example in Pbil. 3: 21, "Who shall 
change our vile body, that it may be fashioned like unto 
his glorious body." We find it stated that before his in- 
carnation, the Son of God "was the brightness of the 
Father's glory and the express image of his Person." In 
this expression we have the representation of the most per- 
fect likeness, a description of Christ's essential nature and 
mode of being, corresponding with that of the Father. 
The brightness or splendor of the Person of the Son, as he 
existed before the incarnation, and partially exhibited on 
the mount of transfiguration is of the same nature with 
that of the Father, who dwells or exists in Light, the radi- 
ance of whose matchless glory "no man can approach 
unto." See Barnes, Phil. 2: 6. The sense of the term 
image does not primarily refer to spiritual nature, but to 
material, unless Paul's meaning in Pom. 8 : 29, and 2 Cor. 
3 : 18, pertaining to a moral and hence figurative sense, be 
so referred. There can be no true image of a spirit, 
because spirit is not a formal entity. The term " express 
image" refers to Personality manifested in visible form, 
though by a method of vision immeasurably above our 
present comprehension. If, then, the image of God in 
man appears especially in his perfected state, and in Christ 
as the express image of the Person of God ; and if these 
manifestations of Christ's divine nature are exhibitions of 
a material entity, it is a rational inference, confirmed, 
rather than opposed by Scripture, that the Father of all 
exists in a like dual mode, and that in Heaven God is seen 
by the manifestation of His material glory or splendor as 
the light which Jehovah Elohim gives from the celestial 
throne. "The Lord God is a Sun." 

We find in the Scriptures terms of an import correspond- 
ing with that of image, indicating a derived ontological 
relation, as the endearing appellations, Father, children, 
offspring, etc. Paul used the latter term in his address at 
Mars' Hill (Acts 17 ch.), quoting the truthful expression 
of the Greek poet Aratus : "We are his offspring" and 
reiterating the same, adding, "For in him we live and 
move and have of our being." These expressions can 
mean nothing less than that we have derived our whole na- 



90 Science and Philosophy. 

ture, our dual being, from " Our Father in heaven.'' The 
term offspring signifies generation, a being that springs, or 
is derived from a parent, by whatever mode. The con- 
ception of essential nature without organic structure has 
frequently been stated by writers ; thus, in "Man Prim- 
eval :" "Man is dependent upon God in a two-fold respect, 
both as having derived his existence from Him, and as 
being maintained by His pervading physical agency." A 
being is properly derived from another from whom he has 
been generated essentially, or in respect to the funda- 
mental substance inherited ; whicli indeed includes the idea 
of type or form as applied to organic being. An offspring 
derives the kind of properties which originally belong to 
the parent. Such is the common conception of the mean- 
ing conveyed by the word derivation. Hence, if "we are 
his offspring," we inherit, as rational and immortal beings, 
especially his essential nature, whatever accidents, modifi- 
cations or peculiarities attach to us as creatures related to 
the universe, and subject to change of form or state. At 
least, being in possession of a twofold nature designated 
by the general terms material and spiritual, the inference 
is valid that such corresponding nature inheres in the 
"Father of all." The essential nature of the Divine 
Being is represented in the creatures he has originated. 
" Creations are visible realizations of eternal types. They 
are exponents and signs of certain corresponding qualities 
infinitely greater in the Divine Nature. If the origin of 
everything which may exist must be traced to Him as the 
Great First Cause, everything will be what it is because he 
is what he is. Everything speaks of Derivation." [Pre- 
Adamite Earth.] 

Omnipresence and Physical Agency. 

Both Rational and Revealed Theism teach that wherever 
there is finite being, there the Infinite Being is present. 
Vast as is the realm of universal being, His presence must 
pervade the whole expanse. "Whither shall I go from 
Thy Spirit, — whither shall I flee from Thy Presence?" 
"The Heaven of heavens cannot contain Thee." "In 
Him we live and move and exist." Also Jer. 23: 23. 
That Presence, though manifested especially at the Throne 
of Glory, is really existent in all worlds, and throughout 
the unbounded ethereal realm. If being exists in any part 
of space apart from, or independent of, the presence and 
sustaining agency of Jehovah, such being is self-existent, 
and the name by which God is known is appropriated such. 



Pan-Dualism — Theotic Nature. 91 

Space is the exceeding broad expanse above and around 
us, to which no finite mind can set limits. It is the condi- 
tion of formal or material being in which all orders exist, 
from the lowest cosmical form to the highest arch-angel. 
Rational Theism teaches by inference, that the Father 
himself bears an actual relation to space, because He fills 
it. If this fact of essential presence obtains as applicable 
to the finite, though invisible medium we call ether, which 
extends throughout the immensity of space, reason teaches 
the necessity of the Infinite Presence as the sustaining 
agency of this material substance, as well as all other forms 
of matter. Whatever may have been the conception of 
Solomon when he said, 1 Kings 8: 27, "The Heaven of 
heavens cannot contain Thee," the idea of content is ex- 
pressed, and signifies that the Divine Immensity cannot be 
limited to the resplendent Throne, but is existent through- 
out his universal empire of being. And when we find the 
assertion in the form of a question, because undeniable, 
" Do not I fill heaven and earth?" the mind conceives 
the idea of space as a condition, and extension as a mode 
or property of being attributed to the Infinite One, who is 
conceived by metaphysical theologians generally as a 
Hypostasis or Person. While the Divine Spiritual nature 
is the primary or original and all-related Force of the uni- 
verse, giving efficiency to all laws of subordinate forces, 
yet we do not speak of force of any order as filling a sub- 
stance. We do not speak of mind as filling the body, but 
as the power which actuates it. Matter fills a given space, 
as air or water a vessel, or extends to any conceivable 
limit, while spirit pervades matter in the sense of a co- 
existing power, to which the idea of content does not 
obtain. The Divine immensity, a property of material 
substance, fills all space, whatever may be the truth in 
respect to its limitations, or unlimitedness. Dugald Stewart 
has this remark : "After we have, by inductive reasoning, 
become satisfied of the existence of a Cause, we naturally 
connect with this cause the impression derived from the 
contemplation of infinite space." We associate the idea 
that the Originator of universal being occupies im man entry 
the same immensity of space which is occupied by the 
natures caused and sustained. Dr. Dick says : " The mind 
of every reasonable man must admit that the Divine Being 
is infinite, and consequently^^ all space with His Pres- 
ence." [Christian Philosopher.] Rev. Robert Hall has 
this : "We frequently speak of God dwelling in the world, 
but it may with equal truth be said that the world dwells 
in God, all creatures being surrounded by His Presence 



92 Science and Philosophy. 

and enclosed in His Essence." Sir I. Newton says 
[Scholium to Principia] : "God is omnipresent, not by 
means of His virtue alone, but also by His Substance, for 
virtue cannot subsist without substance." 

God is the universal Preserver or Sustainer. His un- 
ceasing agency is immanent in every part of His vast em- 
pire. An appropriate sustainer is as reasonable a con- 
ception as an "appropriate Cause." All beings subsist in 
Him who, maintaining His own existence distinct from 
that of every special form and order, upholds all by " the 
operation of His hand," by the sustaining agency which he 
exercises immanently and constantly. "There are divers- 
ities of operations, but it is the same God who worketh 
all in all." Creations are acts. It does not answer the 
demands of Reason to say that His utterance, simply, or 
the expression of His will in words accomplishes the mate- 
rial ends of creation, unless we include the idea of the 
Medium of His operations in the person of the Logos. 
We do not attempt to unfold the mystery of the fact that 
God works in the works of His Son. The mode of the 
Divine operations is among the things "past finding out." 
What is here maintained is the fact of the Immanent 
Presence in material laws and operations of nature, — not- 
withstanding there is a medial cause in the person of the 
Word, and secondary causes in finite creatures. There is 
"awheel within a wheel," even in the observed opera- 
tions of material nature. The Divine super-ethereal nature 
is co-existent and commensurate at least with every other 
order of being. To quote again from "The Christian 
Philosopher," — " If we admit that the moral agency of 
God is worthy of our contemplation, we ought not to con- 
sider His physical operations less worthy of our study and 
investigation, since they form the groundwork of all His 
other manifestations." Says Rev. Robert Hall: " Let us 
once come to apprehend this universal diffusion of Deity, 
and we must find him answering all our expectations." 

It is not dishonoring to our heavenly Father, nor is it a 
delusion to think of Him as ever near us, though unseen, 
and to know that He is really present, and that His agency 
is essential to continued existence. "All things are full of 
God." Dr. Erskine Mason [Pastor's Legacy] beautifully 
expresses the fact of the Divine actuating Presence, thus : 
"The hand that made sustains; the breath that animated 
continues in existence." " Every planet as it marches is 
impelled by God ; every blade of grass, as it springs up, 
is reared by God. He is the Fountain and Sustainer of 
all being ; and there is not in this wide creation the single 



Pan- Dualism — Theotic Nature. 93 

living thing which is not perpetually drawing upon God." 
Well may we add the testimony of David : " O Lord, Thou 
preservest man and beast !" 

Manifestations of the Divine Presence. 

Revealed Theism teaches the omnipresence of the 
Divine Being "in all places of his dominions." But it 
also teaches a manifest presence, in the sense correspond- 
ing to visibility, at the Throne of heaven, at least, if not 
in the numerous occasions recorded in the Scripture of such 
presence being seen or His voice heard, — phenomena 
usually termed anthropomorphic manifestations. These 
theophenies, both of the Old and the New Testament, 
seejn to have been real maifestations of Jehovah by actual 
appearances. When we read that Moses, having visible 
evidences of the Divine presence, " hid his face, being 
afraid to look upon God," *that that "Presence" was 
vouchsafed to the Lawgiver, and even that he should 
"behold the similitude of Jehovah," we are authorised to 
infer that there was a reality thus indicated and not a 
mere symbol of such Presence. Without bringing to special 
notice the numerous theophenies to the patriarchs and 
prophets of the Old Testament we may see the significance 
of such teachings in a few instances. Prominent among 
these, and instructive to the inquirer, is that recorded in 
Ex. 33 : 18, as the petition of Moses : "I beseech Thee, 
show me Thy Glory." He desired a vision of the Deity. 
The symbols of Jehovah's presence had been vouchsafed 
to the journeying Israelites in the "pillar of cloud by day, 
and of fire by night;" but he would penetrate fully the 
hidden recess of the outer symbol. He would look within 
the vail and behold the inner "nucleus enwrapped in such 
a splendid envelope." [Bush]. He would see the Sub- 
stratum of the outer manifestation ; for the glory of the 
inner, real nature must vastly surpass that of the outer. 
He would have a sensible, visible evidence of a more 
complete and real manifestation of the Divine Essence. 
The symbol indicated a glory indeed, but he would behold 
the Glory itself, the Presence which had been promised. 
He would gaze upon the Ineffable. To see Him "face 
to face" would answer the highest aspirations of his soul. 
And it does not appear evident that God was displeased 
with this request. Moses was not reproved as presumptu- 
ous, yet he was assured that the view must, from the 
nature of the case, be partial : that in the present state it 
was quite impossible to behold the great Majesty of 



94 Science and Philosophy. 

Heaven and earth, for such a disclosure his present organic 
nature could not endure. " No man can see me and 
live," or while existing in the present state. It is stated 
that when Augustine was studying the import of the above 
answer to Moses, he wrote thus : " Then Lord, let me die, 
that I may see Thy face." 

The splendor of Jehovah as beheld by the celestial 
powers of vision would be overwhelming to our terrestrial 
capacities. Yet enough has been disclosed to indicate the 
fact that underlyin g the outer and visible, there was an 
Essence whose glory was too ineffable for natural vision. 
Astronomers find in the phenomena of the solar photo- 
sphere evidences that light may exist too intense for 
visibility. If a work of the Creator is too glorious to 
behold by the natural eye, much more the Creator himself. 

If it be supposed that all the ancient theophanies per- 
tained only to the person of the Messiah, it would simply 
remove the actual vision of Jehovah himself back only a 
step ; for the Logos was " The brightness of the Father's 
glory', the express image of His Person." No one should 
doubt that God can disclose Himself at will in a visible 
manifestation ; it is a jpossibility which fails of realization 
only because of man's nature, — it may be as fallen. If, to 
give an analogy, God has constituted physical nature, such 
as the ethereal substance, with the capacity for manifesta- 
tion in the form of light, electricity, etc., may we not 
accept the statement as literally true of His super-ethereal 
substance, that " He is clothed with light as with a gar- 
ment?" There may be a physical truth in the statement 
of the author of " Christian Theism," that "It is the sin 
of the world, rather than the will of God which has 
deprived the world of his more immediate presence." 
God conversed with unfallen man "face to face," and was 
recognized as the Lord of the creation. But he who had sin- 
ned but once was so covered with shame that he could no 
longer endure the presence of the Most Holy. But in 
heaven the vail is removed from the holy of holies, and 
God is seen as He is, transcending all our present concep- 
tions of glory and majesty. 

However these ancient theophanies are to be interpreted, 
the several instances recorded in the New Testament of 
the anunciation of the Father, at different times, "This is 
my beloved Son," shows that in " the fullness of times," 
when the Messiah was manifested in the flesh, it became 
necessary that God should be actually known as distinct 
from the Son, and that in some form of manifestation 
should make known his loving approval of the work He 



Pan- Dualism — Theotic Nature. 95 

had given His Son to do. Certainly God manifested His 
presence by the " voice" which was heard at the baptism, at 
the transfiguration and at the crucifixion. It is also evident 
that if God actually manifested His special and sensible 
presence on these occasions, he might have done it under 
the former dispensation. After the transfiguration, as we 
have seen, Peter alluded to the Divine utterance, describ- 
ing it as "Such a voice from the excellent Glory. It was 
the voice of the Father uttered as a witness to the truth of 
His Son's teachings, and that he was what he claimed to 
be, — the Son of God. "The Father himself which sent 
me hath borne witness of me." If such glory and majesty 
as the transfiguration revealed of the Son was a reality, the 
Father's glory cannot be less effulgent, nor less a reality. 

Trust in the testimony of the Scriptures leads to the con- 
templation of the numerous statements with reference to 
the vision of God as realities. The psalmist says : "I shall 
be satisfied when I awake with Thy likeness." The evan- 
gelist John says (Rev. 22 : 4) : " They shall see His face. " 
In his first epistle he says: "We shall see Him as He 
is." If these are mere figures of speech, how [are we to 
determine what are true representations of the things 
which pertain to the future state ? Though God does not 
see fit to make full disclosures of His Person, we reasona- 
bly infer from the teachings of the Scriptures that such 
disclosures are made in heaven. Though such perfect 
view of the great Majesty of heaven would here be unen- 
durable, there it is as natural, and immeasurably more 
entrancing than the sight of the most splendid work of 
nature or art conceivable. Or, to take an illustration of 
the excellent Mellville : ' ' We shall be as sensible of the 
presence of God as we now are of the presence of a friend 
when he is standing by us, and conversing with us." 
Bishop Beveridge says : " The perfection of the happiness 
of heaven is attained by beholding His presence, — in see- 
ing Him face to face. This beholding Him face to face 
and knowing Him as He is, I believe to be the very heaven 
of heavens, for in beholding Him, we shall not only see 
whatsoever hath been, but whatsoever can be communi- 
cated from Him who is AH in all." 

The Throne of God, the dwelling place of the Most High, 
which John saw (Rev. 3 : 21) was more than a mere sym- 
bol, — it was a view vouchsafed to the favored disciple to 
assure him of the realities of that glorious center of the 
universe vastly beyond what eye can see or the ear hear in 
the present life, and that he might communicate the fact, 
though through imperfect symbolic representations to the 



96 Science and Philosophy. 

church militant. The sublime vision of what is to come 
indicates the majesty and glory, not simply of the throne, 
but of Him who dwells there in glory. "And I saw a 
great white Throne and Him that sat on it, from whose 
face the earth and the heavens fled away." From the 
presence of such splendor the visible creation seemed to 
vanish away, as the stars fade away in the light of the sun. 
" For even that which was made glorious had no glory in 
this respect, by reason of the glory thatexcelleth." There 
must be an ineffable meaning to such descriptions. And 
when we find it stated that " He dwells in light which no 
man can approach unto," and that he himself asserts: "I 
dwell in the High and Holy Place," we must be assured, 
not only of the reality taught, but that the King is more 
glorious than the Throne ; that God is a real Personality 
having a nature of which the rational creature becomes 
cognizant by being himself invested with a corresponding 
nature from which the cosmic organism is eliminated. In 
John's vision of the heavenly Jerusalem he " saw no tem- 
ple." Can it be doubted that all these representations 
convey a truthful impression of the visible personality, not 
only of the Son, but the Father, in whose image the Son 
exists ? Since Heaven is the place of the most perfect and 
glorious manifestations of the Deity, where "he is seen as 
he is," involving all this expression does with reference 
both to the Object seen, and the cspacities to behold, it 
follows that there must be a nature of which the intelligent 
creature becomes cognizant, corresponding to those exalted 
and perfected powers of vision. "All those joys of the 
blessed in heaven have their source and origin from that un- 
speakable joy of the clear vision of God. " [Jeremy Taylor. ] 

If these views and expectations are not founded upon 
delusive Scripture teachings, if the cherished hope of ulti- 
mate felicity, based upon the revelations of the Bible, is 
not a deception and a mockery, if the God of the Bible is 
not a mere ideal being, then the saints in Light behold our 
Father's loving face, and bask in the light of His glorious 
countenance beaming from the throne of God and the Lamb. 

And thus the evidences are cumulative ; and the more 
convincing and complete as the more exhaustively they are 
traced through the progressive stages of being, — ethereal, 
cosmic, vegetal, animal, human, and angelic; and passing 
to the medium and to the Fountain of universal being, 

" Through Nature up to Nature's God,' 1 
we find the arguments from Reason and Revelation valid 
and harmonious in establishing the doctrine of the Dual 
Nature of all Being. 



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